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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

FROM  THE  LIBRARY 
OF 

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THE    WRITINGS    ON   ART 


OF 


ANNA  JAMESON 

IN   FIVE  VOLUMES 
VOL.  I 


EDITED,  WITH  ADDITIONAL  NOTES 
BY  ESTELLE   M    HURLL 

AND 

ABUNDANTLY  ILLUSTRATED  WITH   DESIGNS 
FROM  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  ART 


IN    TWO    VOLUMES 
VOLUME    I 


BOSTON   AND   NEW  YORK 
HOUGHTON  MIFFI.IN  AND   COMPANY 
(Cfte  fltoersibe  pK9* 

M  UCCCCIV 


Copyright,  1895, 
BY  HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  &  CO. 

All  rights  reserved. 


The  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge,  Mast.,  U.  S.  A. 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  H.  O.  Houghton  &  Co. 


AAUPL/ART6 


EDITOR'S  PEEFACE 

THE  revision  of  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art "  has  been 
conducted  with  the  twofold  purpose  of  preserving  the  original 
form  of  the  work  and  of  adding  thereto  such  critical  comments 
as  would  increase  its  value  as  an  authoritative  reference  book. 
The  only  change  in  the  form  of  the  text  is  the  occasional 
insertion  of  a  foot-note  in  the  body  of  the  page.  All  editorial 
comment  is  inclosed  in  brackets  to  distinguish  it  sharply  from 
the  original  material. 

It  has  been  the  duty  of  the  editor  to  ascertain  concerning 
each  work  of  art  which  Mrs.  Jameson  mentions,  (1)  the  opin- 
ion of  recent  critics  in  regard  to  its  authorship,  (2)  the  name 
of  the  gallery,  church,  or  private  collection  in  which  it  is  now 
to  be  found. 

The  first  of  these  tasks  is  one  whose  importance  is  apparent 
to  all  who  have  noted  the  recent  history  of  art  criticism.  The 
works  of  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  the  first  instalment  of  which 
appeared  in  1864,  four  years  after  Mrs.  Jameson's  death,  com- 
pletely overturned  many  of  the  prevailing  ideas  in  regard  to 
the  authorship  of  famous  old  paintings.  A  still  greater  revo- 
lution has  been  caused  by  the  works  of  Morelli,  which  were 
the  starting-point  of  an  entirely  new  method  of  criticism. 
Among  the  followers  of  this  eminent  Italian  critic  are  several 
who  have  contributed  materially  to  the  literature  of  art  criti- 
cism :  Dr.  Gustavo  Frizzoni  and  Dr.  J.  P.  Eichter ;  Dr. 
Woermann,  who  has  based  his  catalogue  of  the  Dresden  Gal- 
lery on  the  "  Critical  Studies,"  and  Sir  Henry  Layard,  who 
has  revised  Kugler's  "  Handbook  of  the  Italian  Schools "  in 
accordance  with ,  the  same  work.  But  without  enumerating 
here  all  the  leading  authorities  of  the  day,  it  is  enough  to  say 


vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

that  their  opinions  are  so  widely  accepted  that  any  work  on 
art  written  previous  to  1860  should  be  corrected  by  the  new 
standards  in  order  to  be  a  trustworthy  guide  to  student  and 
tourist.  The  editor  has  therefore  undertaken  to  insert  through- 
out the  text  frequent  foot-notes  referring  to  the  differing  opin- 
ions concerning  specific  pictures.  In  a  few  exceptional  cases 
the  newly  authorized  artist-name  is  simply  substituted  for  that 
given  by  Mrs.  Jameson,  the  brackets  being  a  sufficient  indica- 
tion of  the  editor's  hand.  A  complete  list  of  the  reference 
books  used  in  the  revision  shows  the  reader  the  authority  upon 
which  these  corrections  are  made. 

The  task  of  investigating  the  present  locality  of  the  works  of 
art  mentioned  has  proceeded  by  various  methods.  In  the  case 
of  pictures  in  the  great  galleries,  the  current  official  catalogues 
of  such  galleries  have  been  accepted  as  reliable  authority  upon 
the  contents  of  their  respective  collections.  In  instances  where 
the  works  of  art  mentioned  are  in  the  churches  of  Florence 
and  Rome,  the  information  concerning  them  has  been  derived 
from  correspondents  in  these  cities  who  have  personally  inves- 
tigated the  subject,  and  whose  faithful  labors  the  editor  here 
gratefully  acknowledges. 

Many  of  the  works  referred  to  were  at  the  time  of  Mrs. 
Jameson's  writing  in  collections  which  have  been  since  dis- 
persed, as  the  Louis  Philippe  collection,  sold  in  1853,  which 
included  the  Spanish  and  Standish  Galleries;  the  Aguado  col- 
lection in  Paris  and  the  Einuccini  in  Florence  ;  the  Duke  of 
Lucca's,  sold  in  1841  ;  as  well  as  various  notable  collections 
in  England,  as  the  Wallerstein,  of  Kensington  Palace ;  Lord 
Shrewsbury's  (Alton  Towers),  sold  in  1857 ;  Lord  Northvvick's, 
sold  in  1859;  Mr.  Bromley's,  sold  in  1863,  and  that  of  Mr. 
Rogers.  It  has  been  difficult  and  sometimes  impossible  to 
trace  the  history  of  the  pictures  in  these  and  similar  collec- 
tions, though  Bedford's  "  Art  Sales  "  has  often  furnished  the 
desired  information. 

Although  the  search  for  localities  has  been  more  largely  a 
work  of  verification  than  of  correction,  it  was  found,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  that  a  not  inconsiderable  number  of  great  paintings 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE  vii 

have  changed  hands  during  the  last  fifty  years.  Wherever  reli- 
able information  of  these  changes  could  be  obtained,  reference 
to  the  present  locality  has  been  inserted  in  the  text.  There 
are  other  cases  in  which  the  information  is  merely  negative, 
showing  that  no  picture  corresponding  to  Mrs.  Jameson's 
description  now  exists  in  the  place  to  which  she  refers  it, 
but  with  no  clue  to  its  present  whereabouts.  In  a  few  rare 
instances  where  a  work  of  art  is  so  insignificant  as  to  receive 
only  a  passing  allusion  from  the  author,  failure  to  find*  it  in 
the  locality  referred  to  has  seemed  a  sufficient  justification  for 
omitting  the  passage  instead  of  correcting  it.  Thus  a  brief 
reference  to  a  picture  of  St.  Anthony  by  Jerome  Bosch  in  the 
Berlin  Gallery  is  omitted  because  there  is  no  trace  of  such  a 
picture  in  the  current  Berlin  catalogue.  Similarly,  a  passage 
concerning  a  mosaic  in  S.  Sabina,  Kome,  is  omitted  because 
the  design  alluded  to  has  been  taken  down  since  Ciampini  saw 
and  described  it. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  editor  has  often  been  able  to  sup- 
ply information  concerning  the  present  ownership  of  pictures 
whose  whereabouts  Mrs.  Jameson  does  not  mention,  or  which 
she  expressly  says  she  cannot  learn.  For  example,  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds's  portrait  of  Mrs.  Billington  as  St.  Cecilia  is  referred 
to  the  Lenox  Gallery,  New  York,  and  Carpaccio's  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Stephen  to  Stuttgart,  on  the  authority  of  Berenson  and 
the  Berlin  and  Louvre  catalogues. 

Besides  the  critical  examination  of  the  text,  the  editorial 
work  has  included  the  brief  description  of  such  modern  paint- 
ings of  the  subjects  treated  as  are  worthy  to  be  placed  beside 
the  works  of  the  old  masters.  These  references  are  necessarily 
few  in  number,  and  do  not  add  materially  to  the  text. 

In  the  matter  of  illustrations  the  editor  has  treated  the 
original  selections  with  far  greater  liberty  than  would  be  justi- 
fied in  handling  the  text.  Modern  technical  processes  make  it 
possible  to  derive  from  original  sources  a  set  of  pictures  cover- 
ing the  entire  field  with  a  completeness  and  accuracy  hitherto 
undreamed  of.  With  these  superior  advantages  an  entirely 
new  scheme  of  illustrations  has  been  prepared.  Wherever  it 


viii  EDITOK  S   PREFACE 

has  seemed  best  to  exclude  any  to  which  Mrs.  Jameson  refers 
as  accompanying  her  text,  her  allusion  has  of  course  been 
omitted. 

The  first  aim  in  the  selection  has  been  to  supplement  in  the 
best  possible  way  the  meaning  of  the  text.  The  pictures 
chosen  are  in  nearly  all  cases  those  specifically  mentioned  by 
Mrs.  Jameson,  or,  if  not,  such  as  correspond  admirably  to  the 
general  type  she  describes.  Where  there  are  several  illustra- 
tions .  of  any  one  subject,  special  pains  have  been  taken  to 
show  a  variety  of  treatment.  In  such  cases  there  is  usually 
some  quaint  early  picture  contrasted  with  later  pictures  both 
of  the  Italian  and  German  schools.  Wherever  there  was  an 
opportunity  for  choice,  preference  has  been  given,  other  things 
being  equal,  to  the  picture  of  superior  artistic  excellence. 
Thus  have  been  brought  together  some  of  the  world's  great 
masterpieces. 

The  editor  has  taken  great  interest  in  compiling  a  list  of 
the -authorities  to  which  Mrs.  Jameson  refers  throughout  her 
work,  stating  in  nearly  every  case  the  full  title  and  the  date  of 
the  edition  probably  used  by  her.  Her  authorities  for  the 
legends  are  enumerated  in  the  original  preface.  As  nearly 
all  these  old  reference  books  are  to  be  found  in  our  great  libra- 
ries, it  has  been  thought  well  to  leave  the  explicit  references 
to  their  pages  or  plates  as  Mrs.  Jameson  first  gave  them,  that 
students  may  continue  to  avail  themselves  of  this  help  in  their 
collateral  researches.  In  the  case  of  books  republished  since 
1860,  as  Stirling's  "  Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain,"  Kugler's 
"Handbook  of  the  Italian  Schools,"  Lindsay's  "  Christian  Art," 
etc.,  the  allusions  are  corrected  to  refer  to  the  latest  editions. 

The  quotations  from  French  and  Italian  writers  have  been 
translated  into  English  that  the  work  may  be  as  useful  as 
possible  to  English  readers.  The  Index  of  Places  and  General 
Index  will  render  the  contents  of  the  volumes  more  readily 
available. 

ESTKLLE    M.    HURLL. 
NEW  BEDFORD,  MASS.,  April,  1895. 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE  TO    THE    FIRST  EDITION 

THIS  book  was  begun  six  years  ago,  in  1842.  It  has  since 
been  often  laid  aside,  and  again  resumed.  In  this  long  interval, 
many  useful  and  delightful  works  have  been  written  on  the  sa'me 
subject,  but  still  the  particular  ground  I  had  chosen  remained 
unoccupied  ;  and,  amid  many  difficulties,  and  the  conscious- 
ness o£  many  deficiencies,  I  was  encouraged  to  proceed,  partly 
by  the  pleasure  I  took  in  a  task  so  congenial  —  partly  by  the 
conviction  that  such  a  work  has  long  been  wanted  by  those 
who  are  not  contented  with  a  mere  manual  of  reference,  or  a 
mere  catalogue  of  names.  This  book  is  intended  not  only  to 
be  consulted,  but  to  be  read  —  if  it  be  found  worth  reading. 
It  has  been  written  for  those  who  are,  like  myself,  unlearned ; 
yet  less,  certainly,  with  the  idea  of  instructing,  than  from  a 
wish  to  share  with  others  those  pleasurable  associations,  those 
ever  new  and  ever  various  aspects  of  character  and  sentiment, 
as  exhibited  in  Art,  which  have  been  a  source  of  such  vivid 
enjoyment  to  myself. 

This  is  the  utmost  limit  of  my  ambition ;  and,  knowing 
that  I  cannot  escape  criticism,  I  am  at  least  anxious  that  there 
should  be  no  mistake  as  to  purpose  and  intention.  I  hope  it 
will  be  clearly  understood  that  I  have  taken  throughout  the 
aesthetic  and  not  the  religious  view  of  those  productions  of  Art 
which,  in  as  far  as  they  are  informed  with  a  true  and  earnest 
feeling,  and  steeped  in  that  beauty  which  emanates  from  genius 
inspired  by  faith,  may  cease  to  be  Religion,  but  cannot  cease 
to  be  Poetry ;  and  as  poetry  only  I  have  considered  them. 

The  difficulty  of  selection  and  compression  has  been  the 
greatest  of  all  my  difficulties  ;  there  is  not  a  chapter  in  this 
book  which  might  not  have  been  more  easily  extended  to  a  vol- 


x  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

ume  than  compressed  into  a  few  pages.  Every  reader,  how- 
ever, who  is  interested  in  the  subject,  may  supply  the  omissions, 
follow  out  the  suggestions,  and  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  discover- 
ing new  exceptions,  new  analogies,  for  himself.  With  regard 
to  the  arrangement,  I  am  ,  afraid  it  will  be  found  liable  to 
objections  ;  but  it  is  the  best  that,  after  long  consideration 
and  many  changes,  I  could  fix  upon.  It  is  not  formal,  nor 
technical,  like  that  of  a  catalogue  or  a  calendar,  but  intended 
to  lead  the  fancy  naturally  from  subject  to  subject  as  one  opened 
upon  another,  with  just  sufficient  order  to  keep  the  mind  un- 
perplexed  and  the  attention  unfatigued  amid  a  great  diversity 
of  objects,  scenes,  stories,  and  characters. 

The  authorities  for  the  legends  have  been  the  "Legenda 
Aurea  "  of  Voragine,  in  the  old  French  and  English  transla- 
tions ;  the  "Flos  Sanctorum"  of  Eibadeneira,  in  the  old 
French  translation;  the  "Perfetto  Legendario,"  editions  of 
Rome  and  Venice ;  the  "  Legende  delle  Sante  Vergini,"  Flor- 
enc$  and  Venice  ;  the  large  work  of  Baillet,  "  Les  Vies  des 
Saints,"  in  thirty-two  volumes,  most  useful  for  the  historical 
authorities ;  and  Alban  Butler's  "  Lives  of  the  Saints."  *  All 
these  have  been  consulted  for  such  particulars  of  circumstance 
and  character  as  might  illustrate  the  various  representations, 
and  then  compressed  into  a  narrative  as  clear  as  I  could 
render  it. 

The  First  Part  contains  the  legends  of  the  scriptural  per- 
sonages and  the  primitive  fathers. 

The  Second  Part  contains  those  sainted  personages  who 
lived,  or  are  supposed  to  have  lived,  in  the  first  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  whose  real  history,  founded  on  fact  or  tradition, 
has  been  so  disguised  by  poetical  embroidery,  that  they  have 
in  some  sort  the  air  of  ideal  beings.  As  I  could  not  under- 
take to  go  through  the  whole  calendar,  nor  yet  to  make  my 
book  a  catalogue  of  pictures  and  statues,  I  have  confined  my- 
self to  the  saints  most  interesting  and  important,  and  (with 
very  few  exceptions)  to  those  works  of  Art  of  which  I  could 
speak  from  my  own  knowledge. 

l  [An  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  New  York  in  1846.] 


AUTHORS   PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION  xi 

The  legends  of  the  monastic  orders,  ahd  the  history  of  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  considered  merely  in  their  con- 
nection with  the  revival  and  development  of  the  Fine  Arts  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  open  so  wide  a  range 
of  speculation,  —  the  characteristics  of  these  religious  enthu- 
siasts of  both  sexes  are  so  full  of  interest  and  beauty  as  artistic 
conceptions,  and  as  psychological  and  philosophical  studies  so 
extraordinary,  that  I  could  not,  in  conscience,  compress  them 
into  a  few  pages :  they  form  a  volume  complete  in  itself,  enti- 
tled "  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders." 

The  little  sketches  and  woodcuts  are  trifling  as  illustrations, 
and  can  only  assist  the  memory  and  the  fancy  of  the  reader ; 
but  I  regret  this  the  less,  inasmuch  as  those  who  take  an  in- 
terest'in  the  subject  can  easily  illustrate  the  book  for  them- 
selves. To  collect  a  portfolio  of  prints,  including  those  works 
of  Art  which  are  cited  under  each  head  as  examples,  with  a 
selection  from  the  hundreds  of  others  which  are  not  cited,  and 
arrange  them  in  the  same  order  —  with  reference,  not  to  schools, 
or  styles,  or  dates,  but  to  subject  merely  —  would  be  an  amus- 
ing, and  I  think  not  a  profitless,  occupation.  It  could  not  be 
done  in  the  right  spirit  without  leading  the  mind  far  beyond 
the  mere  pleasure  of  comparison  and  criticism,  to  "thoughts 
more  elevate  and  reasonings  high  "  of  things  celestial  and  ter- 
restrial, as  shadowed  forth  in  form  by  the  wit  and  the  hand  of 
man. 
1848. 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  TRIED  EDITION 

THE  Author  ventures  to  hope  that,  on  comparing  this  Third 
Edition  of  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art  "  with  the  two  pre- 
ceding, it  will  be  found  greatly  improved,  and  rendered  more 
worthy  of  the  kind  approbation  and  sympathy  with  which  it 
has  been  received.  The  whole  has  been  carefully  revised ;  the 
references  to  the  pictures  and  other  works  of  Art  corrected 
from  the  latest  authorities,  and  many  new  examples  have  been 
added.  In  a  work  so  multifarious  in  its  nature,  and  compris- 
ing so  many  hundred  subjects  and  references,  there  may  remain 
some  errors  and  omissions,  but  they  have  not  occurred  from 
want  of  care ;  and  I  must  not  omit  to  express  due  thanks  for 
the  observations  and  corrections  which  have  been  forwarded  to 
me  from  time  to  time,  and  which  have  been  in  this  edition 
carefully  attended  to. 

A.  J. 

January,  1857. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

AUTHORITIES  REFERRED  TO  BY  THE  AUTHOR  AND  BY  THE 

EDITOR xxiii 

MEMOIR  OF  MRS.  JAMESOX xxvii 

CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  MRS.  JAMESON'S  WORKS    .     .     .    xlv 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

I.   OF  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GENERAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE 

LEGENDS  REPRESENTED  IN  ART  1 

II.   OF    THE   DISTINCTION   TO   BE    DRAWN   BETWEEN   THE 

DEVOTIONAL  AND  THE  HISTORICAL  SUBJECTS      .     .     10 

III.  OF   CERTAIN   PATRON    SAINTS   WHO  ARE    COMMONLY 

GROUPED  TOGETHER  IN  WORKS  OF  ART,  OR  WHO  BE- 
LONG TO  PARTICULAR  COUNTRIES,  ClTIES,  OR,  LO- 
CALITIES    ...  17 

IV.  OF  CERTAIN  EMBLEMS  AND  ATTRIBUTES 22 

V.   OF  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  COLORS 34 

II.     OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

I.  ANGELS.  Antiquity  of  the  Belief  in  Angels.  —  Early  No- 
tions respecting  them.  —  How  represented  in  the  Old 
Testament;  in  the  New  Testament.  —  Angelic  Hier- 
archies.—  The  Nine  Choirs.  —  Seraphim,  Cherubim.  — 
General  Characteristics  in  Painting.  —  Infant  Angels. 
— Wings.  —  Angels  of  Dante.  —  Angels  as  Messengers, 
Choristers,  Guardians ;  as  Ministers  of  Wrath ;  as 
Agents  in  the  Creation.  —  Manner  in  which  the  prin- 
cipal Painters  have  set  forth  the  Angelic  Forms  and 

Attributes 37 

II.   ARCHANGELS.    The  Seven  Archangels.  —  The  Four  Arch- 
angels. —  The  Three  Archangels 83 

ST.  MICHAEL ;    .    .    89 

ST.  GABRIEL HI 

ST.  RAPHAEL 118 

ADDITIONAL  NOTES  ON  ANGELS 123 


^iv  CONTENTS 

t        m.    THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS 

THE  EARLIEST  TYPES  :  as  Four  Books ;  as  Four  Rivers ;  as 
the  Four  Mysterious  Creatures ;  the  Human  and  Ani- 
mal Forms  combined ;  with  Wings ;  as  Men  ....  124 

ST.  MATTHEW.  His  Legend.  —  His  Atttributes.  —  Pictures 

from  his  Life  not  common 134 

ST.  MARK.  His  Legend.  —  Devotional  Pictures  :  as  Evangel- 
ist ;  as  the  Disciple  of  Peter ;  as  the  Patron  Saint  of 
Venice.  —  The  Legend  of  the  Fisherman.  —  The  Le- 
gend of  the  Christian  Slave.  —  The  Translation  of  the 
Body  of  St.  Mark 139 

ST.  LUKE.  His  Legend.  —  Devotional  Figures.  —  Attributes : 
as  Evangelist  and  Painter.  —  St.  Luke  painting  the 
Virgin 147 

ST.  JOHN.  His  Legend.  —  Devotional  Pictures  :  as  Evangel- 
ist ;  as  Apostle  ;  as  Prophet.  —  Subjects  from  his  Life. 
—  Legend  of  St.  John  and  the  Robber ;  of  the  two 
Young  Men ;  of  Drusiana ;  of  the  Huntsman  and  the 
Partridge.  —  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  John.  —  Legend  of 
the  Death  of  St.  John.  —  Legend  of  Galla  Placidia ;  of 
King  Edward  the  Confessor 150 

THE  Six  WRITERS  OF  THE  CANONICAL  EPISTLES,  AS  A 

SERIES 165 


IV.     THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

ANCIENT  TYPES  :  as  Twelve  Sheep ;  as  Twelve  Doves ;  as 
Twelve  Men.  —  How  grouped  in  Ecclesiastical  Decora- 
tion. —  In  the  old  Mosaics  ;  their  proper  place.  —  Ex- 
amples from  various  Painters.  —  Historical  Subjects 
relating  to  the  Twelve  Apostles :  the  Pentecost ;  the 
Separation  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel ;  the  Twelve  Baptisms ;  the  Twelve  Martyrdoms  167 

ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL.  The  Ancient  Greek  Types. — 
Examples  of  the  early  Treatment  of  these  two  Apos- 
tles :  in  the  old  Mosaics ;  in  early  Sculpture ;  in  Pic- 
tures   179 

ST.  PETER.  His  peculiar  Attributes :  as  Apostle  and  Patron 
Saint;  as  the  Head  and  Founder  of  the  Roman 
Church ;  as  Pope.  —  Subjects  from  the  Scriptural  Life 
of  St.  Peter.  —  Legendary  Stones  connected  with  St. 


CONTENTS  XV 

Peter  :  the  Legend  of  Simon  Magus ;  of  the  "  Domine, 
quo  vadis  ?  "  of  Processus  and  Martinian.  —  The  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Peter.  —  St.  Peter  as  Keeper  of  the  Gates 
of  Paradise.  —  The  Legend  of  St.  Petronilla.  —  The 
Life  of  St.  Peter  in'  a  Series  of  Subjects 186 

ST.  PAUL.  Earliest  Type.  —  Attributes  of  St.  Paul :  the 
Sword.  —  Subjects  from  his  Life.  —  Stoning  of  Ste- 
phen. —  Conversion  of  St.  Paul.  —  The  Vision  of  St. 
Paul.  —  Miracles  of  St.  Paul.  —  His  Martyrdom.  — 
The  Legend  of  Plautilla.  —  The  Life  of  St.  Paul  in  a 
Series  of  Subjects 207 

ST.  ANDREW.  The  Legend.  —  Attributes.  —  Historical  Sub- 
jects from  the  Life  of  St.  Andrew.  —  Flagellation.  — 
Adoration  of  the  Cross. — Martyrdom  as  represented 
by  Guido,  Domenichino,  and  Murillo 221 

ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT.  Story  and  Character  as  represented 
in  Scripture.  —  St.  James  as  Patron  of  Spain.  —  The 
Legend  of  Santiago.  —  The  Battle  of  Clavijo.  —  The 
Pilgrims  of  Compostella.  —  The  Devotional  Figures 
and  Attributes  of  St.  James  the  Apostle.  —  As  Tutelar 
Saint  of  Spain.  —  Pictures  from  his  Legend  ....  225 

ST.  PHILIP.  —  The  Legend  of  the  Idol  and  the  Serpent.  —  De- 
votional Pictures  and  Attributes.  —  Subjects  from  his 
Legend.  —  Distinction  between  St.  Philip  the  Apostle 
and  St.  Philip  the  Deacon 235 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW.  The  Legend.  —  The  Attributes.  —  Mar- 
tyrdom   237 

ST.  THOMAS.  Origin  of  his  peculiar  Attribute.  —  The  Legend 
of  King  Gondof  orus.  —  The  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas. 

—  The  Legend  of  the    "  Madonna  della  Cintola."  — 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas     ..." 239 

ST.  JAMES  MINOR.     First  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  —  Attributes. 

—  Resemblance  to  Christ.  —  Subjects  from  his  Life. 

—  Martyrdom.  —  Frescoes  at  Padua 244 

ST.  SIMON  ZELOTES  AND  ST.  JUDE.     Legend  and  Attributes. 

—  Represented  as  Children 2 

ST.  MATTHIAS.     Attributes •    •  248 

JUDAS  ISCARIOT.     Scriptural  Character.  —  Legends  relating 

to  him.  —  How  represented  in  various  Subjects  .     .     •  249 
THE  LAST   SUPPER.     Its  Importance  as  a  Sacred  Subject.  - 
Devotional  when  it  represents  the  Institution  of  the 
Eucharist.  —  Historical  when  it  represents  the  Detec- 


XVI  CONTENTS 

tion  of  Judas.  —  Various  examples  :  Giotto ;  Duccio 
of  Siena ;  Angelico  da  Fiesole  ;  Luca  Signorelli ;  Ghir- 
landajo  ;  Albert  Diirer  ;  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  Raphael ; 
Andrea  del  Sarto ;  Titian ;  Poussin 254 

FAULTS  AND  MISTAKES  COMMITTED  BY  PAINTERS  IN  REP- 
RESENTING THE  LAST  SUPPER 267 

ST.  BARNABAS.  His  Legend.  —  Popular  at  Venice  as  Kins- 
man of  St.  Mark.  —  Represented  with  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew  .  272 


V.  THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH 

THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS.  -  Their  particular  Attri- 
butes. —  Their  proper  place  in  Ecclesiastical  Decora- 
tion. Subjects  in  which  they  are  introduced  together  274 

ST.  JEROME.  History  and  Character.  —  Influence  over  the 
Roman  Women.  —  Origin  of  his  Attributes  —  Le- 
gend of  the  Wounded  Lion.  —  Devotional  Figures  of 
St.  Jerome  :  as  Patron  Saint ;  as  Translator  of  the 
Scriptures  ;  as  Penitent.  —  Subjects  from  the  Life 
of  St.  Jerome.  —  The  Communion  of  St.  Jerome  .  280 

ST.  AMBROSE.  Story  and  Character  of  St.  Ambrose.  —  The 
Emperor  Theodosius.  —  The  Discovery  of  the  Mar- 
tyrs St.  Protasius  and  St.  Gervasius.  —  Legends  re- 
lating to  St.  Ambrose :  The  Prefect  Macedonius ; 
The  Nobleman  of  Tuscany.  —  Devotional  Figures 
of  St.  Ambrose.  —  His  peculiar  Attributes.  —  His 
Church  at  Milan ;  his  Life  as  represented  on  the 
Altar.  —  Statue  of  St.  Ambrose 295 

ST.  AUGUSTINE.  Character  of  St.  Augustine.  —  His  Shrine 
at  Pavia,  and  Basso-relievos  representing  his  Life.  — 
Devotional  Figures  of  St.  Augustine.  —  Represented 
with  his  Mother,  Monica.  —  Various  Subjects  from 
his  Life.  —  The  Vision  of  St.  Augustine  ....  303 

ST.  GREGORY.  His  Story  and  Character.  —  His  Popu- 
larity. —  Legends  connected  with  his  Life ;  Origin 
of  his  Attribute,  the  Dove ;  the  Supper  of  St.  Greg- 
ory ;  the  Mass  of  St.  Gregory ;  the  Miracle  of  the 
Brandeum  ;  St.  Gregory  releases  the  Soul  of  the  Em- 
peror Trajan ;  the  Legend  as  represented  in  Pic- 
tures ;  the  Legend  of  the  Monk.  —  St.  Gregory's 
Doctrine  of  Purgatory.  —  How  represented  .  .  .  311 


CONTENTS  xvii 

IT.  THE  FOUR  GREEK  FATHERS.  How  represented  in  the 

Greek  Pictures,  and  by  the  Latin  Artists  ....  320 

ST.  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM.  Singular  Legends  with  regard  to 
him.  —  The  Penance  of  St.  Chrysostom :  as  repre- 
sented in  the  German  Prints ;  by  Lucas  Cranach ; 
by  Beham  ;  by  Albert  Diirer 321 

ST.  BASIL  THE  GREAT.  His  Character.  —  How  repre- 
sented. —  Story  of  the  Emperor  Valens.  —  Legends 
•which  refer  to  St.  Basil 331 

ST.  ATHANASIUS.  How  represented.  —  Unpopular  as  a 

Subject  of  Art  334 

ST.  GREGORY  NAZIANZEN.  His  History  and  Character. — 
His  celebrity  as  a  Poet.  —  Beautiful  Miniatures  rela- 
tive to  his  Life 335 

ST.  CYRIL.     How  represented 337 


VI.  ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE,  ST.  MARTHA,  ST.  LAZ- 
ARUS, ST.  MAXIMIN,  ST.  MARCELLA,  ST.  MARY 
OF  EGYPT,  AND  THE  BEATIFIED  PENITENTS 

ST.  MARY  MAGDALEXE.  Her  Character.  —  Disputes  concern- 
ing her  Identity.  —  The  Popular  and  Scriptural  Le- 
gend. —  The  old  Provei^al  Legend.  —  The  Devotional 
Representations  :  as  Patron  Saint ;  as  Penitent.  —  Sa- 
cred Subjects  in  which  she  is  introduced.  —  Legendary 
Subjects.  —  La  Danse  de  la  Madeleine.  —  The  Assump- 
tion of  the  Magdalene.  —  The  Legend  of  the  Mother 
and  Child.  —  Her  Life  in  a  series  of  Subjects.  —  Le- 
gends of  Mary  Magdalene  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  339 

ST.  MARTHA.     Her  Character.  —  Legends  of  St.  Martha.  — 

How  represented.  —  AVhere  introduced 37G 

ST.  LAZARUS 378 

ST.  MARY  OF  EGYPT.     The  Legend.  —  Distinction  between 

St.  Mary  of  Egypt  and  Mary  Magdalene.  —  Proper  At-        • 
tributes  of  Mary  of  Egypt.  —  Stories  and  Pictures  from 
her  Life " 379 

MARY  THE  PEXITENT.  Not  to  be  confounded  with  Mary  of 
Egypt. —  Her  Story.  —  Landscapes  of  Philippe  de 
Champagne 384 

ST.  THAIS  AND  ST.  PELAGIA 387 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Portrait  of  Mrs.  Jameson *   Frontispiece 

Crosses 25 

Crowns 29 

Palms 30 

Cherubs  (Pinturicchio) 42 

Part  of  a  Glory  of  Angels  from  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin 

(Ambrogio  Borgognone).     S.  Simpliciano,  Milan  ....  44 

Assyrian  Winged  Genius 47 

Cherub  (from  early  MS.) 49 

Angel  (Bellini).     From  Frari  Madonna,  Church  of  Frari, 

Venice 52 

Angel  (Melozzo  d%Forli).     Vatican,  Rome 53 

Angel  (Melozzo  da  Forli).     Vatican,  Rome 55 

Angel  bearing  the  Moon  (Greek,  twelfth  century)    ....  57 

Expulsion  from  Paradise  (Bas-relief,  Orvieto) 59 

Angels  visiting  Abraham  (Raphael).     Loggie,  Vatican     .     .  63 

Diagram  of  chapel,  Riccardi  Palace,  Florence 65 

Angels  (Martin  Schoen) 69 

Angels  (Angelico).     From  Coronation,  Uffizi,  Florence     .     .  71 

Angels  in  Adoration  (Granacci).     Florence  Academy  ...  72 

Angel  (Perugino).     From  Assumption,  Florence  Academy    .  73 

Angels  (Titian).     From  Assumption,  Venice  Academy     .    .  75 

Angel  (Raphael).     Chigi  Chapel,  Rome 77 

Angel  (Rembrandt).     From  Tobias  and  the  Angel,  Louvre  79 
Angel    (Xiccolo   del  Area).    From  Tomb  of  St.  Dominick, 

Bologna 81 

Archangels(Cimabue).     S.  Francesco,  Assisi 83 

Archangels     (attributed    to   Orcagna).     From    Last    Judg- 
ment, Campo  Santo,  Pisa 85 

Angels    (attributed    to    Orcagna).     From    Last    Judgment, 

Campo  Santo,  Pisa 87 

St.  Michael  (Angelico).     From  Deposition,  Florence  Acad- 
emy   \     .  95 

St.  Michael  (Martin  Schoen) 98 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  (Raphael).  Louvre 101 

St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  (Guido  Reni).  Capuccini, 

Rome facing  102 

St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  (Oggione).  Brera,  Milan  .  .  104 

St.  Michael  as  Angel  of  Judgment  (attributed  to  Memling)  .  107 

•Angel  Gabriel  (Lorenzo  Monaco).  Florence  Academy  .  .  114 

Angel  Gabriel  (Stephen  Lothener).  Cathedral,  Cologne  .  .  115 

Angel  Gabriel  (Martin  Schoen) 117 

Tobias  and  the  Angels  (attributed  to  Botticelli).  Florence 

Academy facing  122 

St.  Matthew  (Mosaic).  S.  Pudenziana 127 

St.  Luke  (Mosaic).  S.  Pudenziana 128 

St.  Mark  (Mosaic) 128 

St.  John  (Mosaic).  S.  Paolo,  Rome 129 

St.  John  (Mosaic) 129 

Assyrian  Symbol 130 

St.  Mark  (Mosaic).  San  Marco,  Rome 131 

The  Evangelists.  S.  Vitale,  Ravenna 132 

St.  Matthew  (Raphael).  From  Marc  Antonio's  engraving 

after  Raphael's  design  in  Hall  of  Pope's  Pages,  Vatican  .  135 
Christ  and  St.  Matthew  (attributed  to  Pordenone).  Dres- 
den Gallery 138 

St.  Mark  (Titian).  From  St.  Mark  Enthroned,  S.  Maria 

della  Salute,  Venice 140 

St.  Mark  (Bartolommeo).  Pitti,  Florence 142 

Miracle  of  St.  Mark  (Tintoretto).  Venice  Academy  facing  146 

St.  John  (Lucas  van  Ley  den) • 152 

St.  John  (Raphael).  From  Marc  Antonio's  engraving  after 

Raphael's  design  in  Hall  of  Pope's  Pages,  Vatican  .  .  .  153 

Twelve  Apostles  as  Sheep  (Mosaic) 167 

St.  Philip  (Orcagna).  Or  San  Michele,  Florence  ....  169 

St.  Peter  (Greek  type).  Eleventh  century 180 

St.  Paul  (Greek  type).  Eleventh  century 182 

St.  Peter  (Vischer).  Nuremberg 186 

St  Peter  as  Pope  (Cola  dell'  Amatrice) 187 

Repentance  of  St.  Peter  (Bas-relief,  third  century)  ....  190 
Repentance  of  St.  Peter  (Mosaic).  S.  Apollinare,  Nuovo, 

Ravenna 191 

Christ  delivering  Keys  to  St.  Peter  (Perugino).  Sistine 

Chapel,  Rome facing  192 

Madonna  and  Child  with  Saints  (Crivelli).  Dudley  House, 

London  .                                                      194 


XX  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  (Filippino  Lippi).  Carmine,  Flor- 
ence   196 

Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  (Filippino  Lippi).  Carmine,  Flor- 
ence   203 

St.  Peter  at  the  Gate  of  Paradise  (attributed  to  Simone 
Memmi).  Spanish  Chapel,  S.  Maria  Novella,  Florence .  204 

Conversion  of  St.  Paul  (Rubens) facing    210 

St.  Andrew  (Vischer).     Nuremberg 222 

St.  James  Major  (Raphael).  From  Marc  Antonio's  engrav- 
ing after  Raphael's  design  in  Hall  of  Pope's  Pages,  Vati- 
can  231 

St.  James  (Andrea  del  Sarto).     Uffizi,  Florence 232 

St.  Philip  (Albert  Diirer) 235 

St.  Philip  (Nanni  di  Banco).     Or  San  Michele,  Florence      .    236 

St.  Bartholemew  (Albert  Diirer) 238 

St.  Thomas  (Lucas  van  Leyden) 240 

St.  James  Minor  (Martin  Schoen) 245 

St.  Matthias  (Raphael).  From  Marc  Antonio's  engraving 
after  Raphael's  design  in  Hall  of  Pope's  Pages,  Vatican  .  248 

The  Last  Supper  (after  Da  Vinci) facing    262 

The  Vision  of   the  Four  Fathers  (Dosso  Dossi).     Dresden 

Gallery facing    278 

St.  Jerome  (Ghirlandajo).     Ogni  Santi,  Florence      ....     285 
St.  Jerome    (Raphael).     From    Crucifixion,  Dudley  House, 

London1 288 

The  Penance  of  St.  Jerome  (Albert  Diirer) 289 

St.  Jerome  and  the.  Lion  (Coll'  Antonio  del  Fiore).  Na- 
ples   292 

Last  Communion    of   St.  Jerome  (Domenichino).     Vatican 

Gallery facing    292 

St.  Ambrose  and  Ernperor  Theodosius  (Rubens).  Belve- 
dere, Vienna facing  302 

St.  Augustine  (attributed  to  Filippo  Lippi).  Uffizi,  Flor- 
ence   305 

Vision  of  St.  Augustine  (Garofalo).  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don   308 

St.  Augustine   and   St.   Monica   (Ary   Scheffer).     National 

Gallery  London 310 

Miracle  of  St.  Gregory  (A.  Sacchi).     Vatican  Gallery  facing    318 

1  Under  the  reproduction  of  this  picture  in  the  Portfolio  for  January,  1895 
(Julia  Cartwright's  monograph  on  Raphael),  is  the  statement  that  the  original  is 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Mond.  Miintz  and  others  refer  it  to  the  Dudley  House 
collection. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XXI 

The  Penance  of  St.  Chrysostom  (Albert  Diirer) 330 

Magdalene  (Canova) 349 

Magdalene  (Lucas  van  Leyden) 351 

Madonna  with    Magdalene   and    St.    Jerome    (Correggio). 

Parma  Gallery facing  352 

Magdalene  (Guido  Reni).     Louvre,  Paris 357 

Noli  Me  Tangere  (Titian).    National  Gallery,  London  facing  364 


AUTHORITIES  REFERRED  TO  BY  THE  AUTHOR 

Bosio.     Roma  Subterranea.     Rome,  1651. 

Ciampini,  Giovanni  Giustino.     Opera  ed  auct.     Roma,  1747. 

Bottari,  Giovanni  Gaetano.  Sculture  e  pitture  sagre  estratte  dai 
cimiterii  di  Roma.  Roma,  1737-54. 

Miinter,  Friedrich  Christian  Carl  Heinrich.  Sinnbilder  und  Kunst- 
vorstellungen  der  alten  Christen.  Altona,  1825. 

Didron.     Manuel  d'Iconographie  Chretienne.     Paris,  1845. 

Durandus,  William.     Rationale  Divinorum  Officiorum.1 

Koburgher  (Koberger).     Legendensammlung.     Nuremberg,  1488. 

Marco  Lastri.     L'Etruria  Pittrice.     Florence,  1791-95. 

Cicognara.     Scultura  Moderna.     Prato,  1823. 

Lanzi.     Storia  Pittorica  della  Italia.2 

Rosini.     Storia  della  Pittura  Italiana.     Pisa,  1839. 

Vasari.     Vite  dei  Pittori,  Scultori  e  Architetti.     Florence,  1846-57. 

Lord  Lindsay.     Sketches  of  Christian  Art.     London,  1847. 

Franz  Kugler.  A  Handbook  of  the  History  of  Painting.  Ger- 
man, French,  and  Dutch  Schools.  Edited  by  Sir  Edmund  Head. 
London,  1846. 

Bartsch.     Le  Peintre  Graveur.     Vienna,  1813. 

Heller.     Leben  und  Werke  von  Albrecht  Diirer.     Leipzig,  1831. 

Passavant.     Rafael  von  Urbino.     Leipzig,  1839. 

Stirling.     Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain.     London,  1848. 

Sir  Edmund  Walker  Head.  Handbook  of  the  History  of  the  Span- 
ish and  French  Schools  of  Painting.  London,  1848. 

Waagen.  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  England  und  Paris.  Ber- 
lin, 1837-39. 

Paul  Landon.  Annales  du  Musee  et  de  PEcole  des  Beaux  Arts. 
(22  vols.)  Paris,  1815. 

1  The  first  book  of  this  work  has  been  recently  translated  into  English  by  J. 
M.  Neale  and  Benj.  Webb  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.     The  Symbolism  of 
Churches  and  Church  Ornament.     London,  1893.     The  .translators  enumerate  in 
the  preface  the  following  editions  of  the  original    Latin  work:    Rome,  1473; 
Lyons,  1503,  1512,  1534,  1584;  Antwerp,  1570;  Venice,  1599,  1609. 

2  It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  context  what  edition  of  this  work  was  used 
by  the  author. 


AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED   BY   THE   EDITOR  xxiii 

Thomas  Frognall  Dibdin.  The  Bibliographical  Decameron;  or, 
ten  days  pleasant  discourse  upon  illuminated  manuscripts,  etc. 
(3  vols.)  London,  1817. 

Le  Opere  del  pittore  plasticatore  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  disegnate  ed 
incise  da  S.  Pinazzi,  descritte  da  G.  Bordiga.  Milan,  1835^. 

John  Carter.  Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture  and  Painting  in 
England.  London,  1838.1 

Bayle.     Dictionnaire  Historique  et  Critique.     Rotterdam,  1720. 

Zani,  Pietro.  Enciclopedia  metodica  critico-ragionata  delle  Belle 
Arti.  Parma,  1817-23. 

Nathaniel  Lardner.     Works.     London,  1788. 

L'Abbe  Mery.     Theologie  des  Peintres.     Paris,  1765. 

Milman.     History  of  Christianity.     London,  1840. 

John  C.  L.  Giesler.  Text-book  of  Ecclesiastical  History.  New 
York,  1849:2 

Edward  Gibbon.  The  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire.8 

Goethe.  Theory  of  Colors.  Translated  by  C.  L.  Eastlake.  Lon- 
don, 1840. 

Robert  Curzon,  Jr.  Visits  to  Monasteries  in  the  Levant.  London, 
1849. 

J.  W.  Percy.  Romanism  as  it  exists  at  Rome.  Exhibited  in  in- 
scriptions, etc.  London,  1847. 


AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED   BY  THE  EDITOR 

J.  Spencer  Northcote  and  W.  E.  Brownlow.     Roma  Sotterranea. 

London,  1869. 

Andre  Perate.     Archaeologie  Chretienne.     Paris,  1892. 
P.  Raffaelo  Garrucci.     Storia  della  Arte  Cristiana.     Prato,  1879. 
Didron.     Christian  Iconography :  vol.  i.,  translated  by  E.  J.  Mil- 

lington.      London,     1851.      vol.    ii.,     translated    by    Margaret 

Stokes.     London,  1886. 
Louisa  Twining.     The  Symbols  of  Early  Christian  and  Medieval 

Art.     London,  1885. 
Lord  Lindsay.     Sketches  of  Christian  Art.     London,  1885. 

1  This  work  was  republished  in  1887. 

-  This  is  probably  not  the  edition  used  by  Mrs.  Jameson,  but  is  the  only  one 
accessible  to  the  editor. 

3  It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  context  what  edition  the  author  used  of  a 
book  republished  so  many  times. 


xxiv          AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED   BY   THE   EDITOR 

Woltmann  and  Woermann.     History  of  Painting.     Translated  by 

Clara  Bell.     London,  1887. 
Eugene  Miintz.     Histoire  de  PArt  pendant  la  Renaissance.    Paris, 

1889-91. 
Robert  Dohme  and  others.     Kunst  und  Kiinstler  des  Mittelalters 

und  der  Neuzeit.     Leipzig,  1877-1886. 
Sir  Henry  Layard's  Revision  of  Kugler's  Handbook  of  tke  Italian 

Schools.     London,  1887. 
Morelli.     Critical   Studies  of     Italian    Painters.     Translated  by 

Constance  Jocelyn  Ffoulkes.     London,  1892. 

Gustavo  Frizzoni.     Arte  Italiana  del  Rinascimento.     Milan,  1891. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.     History  of  Painting  in  Italy.     London, 

1864. 
Crowe    and  Cavalcaselle.     History  of  Painting  in  North   Italy. 

London,  1871. 
Bernhard  Berenson.     The  Venetian  Painters  of  the  Renaissance. 

New  York  and  London,  1894. 
Crowe's  Revision  of  Kugler's  Handbook  of  the  German,  Flemish, 

and  Dutch  Schools.     London,  1889. 
Ernst  Forster.     Denkmale  der  Deutschen  Kunst.     Leipzig,  1855- 

1869. 

H.  Janitschek.     Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Kunst.     Berlin,  1890. 
Stirling-Maxwell.      Annals   of    the   Artists  of   Spain.     London, 

1891. 
Clara   Cornelia  Stranahan.     History  of  French  Painting.    New 

York,  1888. 

D.  C.  Thompson.     Barbizon  School.     London,  1891. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.     Raphael:  His  Life  and  Works.     Lon- 
don, 1882-1885. 
Eugene  Miintz.      Raphael.     Translated  by  Walter    Armstrong. 

London,  1882. 
Passavant.     Raphael.     Translated  in  an  abridged  English  edition. 

London  and  New  York,  1872. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle.      Titian  :  His  Life  and  Times.     London, 

1877. 

Georges  La  Fenestre.     La  Vie  et  1'CEuvre  de  Titien.     Paris. 
Frank  Preston  Stearns.    Life  and  Genius  of  Jacopo  Robusti.    New 

York,  1894. 
J.  A.  Symonds.     Life   of  Michel    Angelo    Buonarroti.     London. 

1893. 
Cavalucci  et  Molinier.     Les  Delia  Robbia  :  leur  vie  et  leur  ceuvre. 

Paris,  1884. 


AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED   BY   THE   EDITOR  XXV 

Charles  B.  Curtis.  Velasquez  and  Murillo.  Description  and  his- 
torical catalogue  of  their  works.  London  and  New  York,  1883. 

The  works  of  Antonio  Canova,  engraved  by  Henry  Moses.  De- 
scription by  the  Countess  Albrizzi ;  biographical  memoir  by 
Count  Cicognara.  London,  1849. 

Moritz  Thausing.  Diirer  :  His  Life  and  Works.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  F.  A.  Eaton.  London,  1882. 

Emile  Michel.  Rembrandt :  His,  Life,  his  Work,  and  his  Time. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  Florence  Simmonds.  London, 
1894. 

Dimitri  Rovinski.  L'CEuvre  grave  de  Rembrandt  avec  un  cata- 
logue raisonne.  St.  Petersburg,  1890. 

Amand-Durand.     (Euvre  de  Schongauer.     Paris,  1891. 

Amand-Durand.     CEuvre  de  Lucas  de  Leyde.     Paris. 

Amand-Durand.    CEuvre  de  Diirer.    Paris. 

Malcom  Bell.  Edward  Burne-Jones :  A  Record  and  Review. 
London  and  New  York,  1893. 

F.  G.  Stephens.     Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti.    In  Portfolio,  May,  1894. 

George  Redford.     Art  Sales.     London,  1888. 

John  Denison  Champlin,  Jr.,  and  Charles  C.  Perkins.  Cyclopaedia 
of  Painters  and  Painting.  New  York,  1886. 

Bryan.  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers.  Revised  by  Robert 
Edmund  Graves.  London,  1886. 

J.  Burckhardt.  Le  Cicerone :  Guide  de  1'Art  Antique  et  de  1'Art 
Moderne.  Traduit  par  Aug.  Gerard  sur  le  5iemo  edition  par  le 
docteur  Wilhelm  Bode.  Paris,  1892. 

Jean  Paul  Richter.  Italian  Art  in  the  National  Gallery.  London, 
1883. 

The  National  Gallery.  Foreign  Schools.  By  Authority.  Lon- 
don, 1892. 

Ernest  Law.  An  Illustrated  New  Guide  to  Hampton  Court  Palace. 
London,  1894. 

Windsor  Castle  :  Official  and  Authorized  Royal  Guide.     1894. 

Susan  and  Joanna  Horner.     Walks  in  Florence.     London,  1873. 

Kdroly.     Guide  to  the  Paintings  of  Florence.     London,  1893. 

Caesar  Rigoni.  Catalogue  of  the  Royal  Uffizi  Gallery  in  Florence. 
Florence,  1892. 

Catalogue  de  la  Galerie  Royale  de  Venise.     Venice,  1892. 

R.  Pinacoteque  de  Bologne.     Bologna,  1883. 

Catalogo  della  R.  Pinacoteca  di  Milano.     Milan,  1892. 

Cav.  E.  G.  Massi.  Descrizione  delle  Gallerie  di  Pittura  nel  Ponti- 
ficio  Palazzo  Vaticano.  Rome,  1887. 


xxvi  AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED   BY   THE   EDITOK 

Galleria  Doria  Pamphilj.     1894. 

Guida  per  visitare  la  Galleria  di  San  Luca.     Rome,  1882. 

D.  Pedro  de  Madrazo.     Catalogo  de  los  Cuadros  del  Museo  del 

Prado  de  Madrid.     Madrid,  1893. 
Catalogo  de  los  Cuadros  y  estatuas  en  el  museo  provincial  de  Se- 

villa.    Seville,  1888. 
La  Fenestre  et  Richtenberger.     Le  Musee  National  du  Louvre. 

Paris,  1893. 
F.  Villot.     Musee  National  du   Louvre.     Ecoles   allemandes,  fla- 

mandes  et  hollondaises.     Paris,  1889. 
F.  Villot.     Musee  National  du  Louvre.     Tableaux  de  1'Ecole  fran- 

9aise.     Paris,  1891. 
Le  V"  Both  de  Tauzia.     Musee  National  du  Louvre.     Ecoles  d'lta- 

lie  et  d'  Espagne.     Paris,  1894. 
Edouard  Fetis.     Catalogue  descriptif  et  historique  des  Tableaux 

Anciens  du  Musee  de  Bruxelles.     Brussels,  1889. 
Catalogue.     Musee  Royal  d'Anvers.     Antwerp,  1894. 
Karl  Woermann.     Katalog  der   Koniglichen  Gemaldegalerie  zu 

Dresden.     Dresden,  1892. 
Edward     Ritter     von    Engerth   and    Wilhelm   von  Wartenegg. 

Fiihrer  durch  die  Gemalde-Galerie  zu  Wien.     Vienna,  1892. 
Beschreibendes  Verzeichnis  der  Gemalde    Konigliche  Museen  zu 

Berlin.     Berlin,  1891. 
Illustrierter  Katalog  der  Alten  Pinakothek.     Officielle  Ausgabe. 

Munich. 
Ermitage  Imperial.     Catalogue  de  la  Galerie  des  Tableaux.     Les 

Ecoles  d' Italic  et  d'Espagne,  par  le  Bar.  E.  Briiningk  and  A. 

Somoff.     St.  Petersburg,  1891. 


MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON1 

THE  life  of  Anna  Jameson  has  a  twofold  interest,  arising 
at  once  from  her  own  marked  individuality  and  from  her 
relations  to  all  the  progressive  movements  of  her  times.  Her 
personality  is  singularly  winning.  That  "  fine  aspiring  spirit  " 
and  "  noble  instinct  for  greatness,"  which  Elizabeth  Barrett 
was  quick  to  recognize  in  her  early  writings,  makes  itself 
felt  on  every  page  of  her  books.  As  a  friend,  she  was  loved 
for  her  affectionate  and  generous  heart ;  as  a  writer,  she  was 
admired  for  her  brilliant  mind  and  scholarly  attainments.  In 
private  life  and  in  public  work  her  name  stood  to  friends  and 
critics  alike  for  all  that  was  sincere  and  earnest  and  noble. 

The  early  half  of  our  century  was  a  time  of  newly  awak- 
ening interest  in  great  art.  Lord  Lindsay  and  Sir  Charles 
Eastlake  in  England,  as  well  as  the  continental  writers,  Dr. 
Waagen  and  M.  Rio,  contributed  much  to  the  true  appreciation 
of  the  old  masters.  Among  these  Mrs.  Jameson  takes  a 
recognized  place  of  honor.  Political  Science,  too,  owes  much 
to  her  enthusiastic  labors.  Hers  was  the  first  name  on  a 
petition  to  pass  a  bill  in  Parliament  securing  to  married  wo- 
men the  use  of  their  own  earnings.  She  worked  hard  to  get 
Schools  of  Design  open  to  women.  She  encouraged  every 
effort  to  better  the  education  of  the  masses. 

In  the  social  world,  as  well  as  in  the  world  of  art  and  let- 
ters, Mrs.  Jameson  was  a  brilliant  figure.  She  had  a  positive 
genius  for  friendship,  and  included  among  her  intimates 
many  of  her  most  distinguished  contemporaries. 

1  The  basis  of  this  sketch  is  Mrs.  Gerardine  MacPherson's  Memoirs  of  Anna 
Jameson,  Boston,  1878.  For  many  side-lights  thrown  on  the  subject  by 
contemporary  writers,  credit  is  given  in  the  proper  places  throughout  the 
narrative. 


XXV111  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.    JAMESON 

Among  these  varied  interests  was  passed  a  life  which, 
though  devoid  of  striking  events,  has  its  own  peculiar  charm, 
because  so  full  of  intellectual  activity  and  usefulness. 

Anna  Murphy  was  born  at  Dublin  in  1794,  at  a  time  of 
great  political  disturbance  in  Ireland.  Her  father  was  a  min- 
iature painter  and,  withal  an  ardent  adherent  to  the  "  United 
Irishmen."  His  revolutionary  tendencies,  however,  came  to 
no  disastrous  results,  for  he  removed  to  England  in  1798,  and 
thenceforward  took  no  active  part  in  Irish  politics.  For  the 
following  five  years  the  family  home  was  successively  located 
at  Whitehaven  and  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  where  the  the  chil- 
dren enjoyed  the  utmost  freedom  of  country  life.  The  father 
being  often  absent  from  home,  sometimes  accompanied  by 
his  wife,  Anna,  who  was  the  eldest,  became  the  leader  and 
care-taker  of  the  three  little  sisters,  who  loved  her  with  loyal 
devotion. 

An  amusing  incident  is  related  of  an  attempt  of  the  little 
troop  of  maids  to  escape  from  the  tyranny  of  their  landlady 
by  running  away  to  join  their  parents  in  Scotland.  Anna 
organized  the  expedition  with  great  adroitness,  and  was  deeply 
chagrined  Avhen  the  party  was  overtaken  and  captured.  At 
another  time  the  young  adventuress  proposed  to  her  follow- 
ers that  they  should  set  forth  to  earn  their  own  livelihood 
and  help  their  father.  Their  plan  was  to  go  to  Brussels  to 
learn  lace-making,  and  was  only  frustrated  by  the  defection  of 
one  of  the  sisters. 

Of  Mrs.  Jameson's  child-life  we  have  still  further  her  own 
very  interesting  record  written  late  in  life  at  the  request  of  a 
friend,  not  as  an  autobiography,  but  rather  as  a  study  of 
child-nature,  which  in  her  opinion  was  so  grossly  misunder- 
stood in  current  educational  systems. 

"  No, "  she  writes,  "  certainly  I  was  not  an  extraordinary 
child.  If  anything  in  particular,  I  believe  I  was  particularly 
naughty  —  at  least  so  it  was  said  twenty  times  a  day.  But 
looking  back  now,  I  do  not  think  I  was  particular  even  in  this 


MEMOIK   OF   MRS.   JAMESON  xxix 

respect ;  I  perpetrated  not  more  than  the  usual  amount  of 
mischief,  so  called,  which  every  lively,  active  child  perpe- 
trates between  five  and  ten  years  old.  I  had  the  usual  desire 
to  know  and  the  usual  dislike  to  learn ;  the  usual  love  of 
fairy  tales  and  hatred  of  French  exercises.  " 

As  the  narrative  goes  on  it  is  impossible  not  to  believe,  in 
spite  of  the  writer's  modest  self-estimate,  that  she  was  indeed 
an  extraordinary  child.  Her  most  remarkable  gift  was  a 
powerful  imagination.  Gathering  her  younger  sisters  about 
her,  she  used  to  entertain  them  with  marvellous  tales  of  her 
own  invention,  which  she  related  "  with  a  keen  sense  of  tri- 
umphant enjoyment  in  seeing  the  listener  taken  in  by  a  most 
artful  and  ingenious  concatenation  of  impossibilities.  Fer- 
dinand Mendez  Pinto,  that  liar  of  the  first  magnitude,  was 
nothing  in  comparison  !  "  Not  less  wonderful  were  the  scenes 
and  events  of  her  own  inner  reveries,  which  she  never  revealed 
to  others.  "  The  shaping  spirit  of  imagination  began,"  she 
says,  "  when  I  was  about  eight  or  nine  years  old  to  haunt 
my  inner  life.  I  can  truly  say  that  from  ten  years  old  to 
fourteen  or  fifteen  I  lived  a  double  existence ;  one  outward, 
linking  me  with  the  external  sensible  world,  the  other,  inward, 
creating  a  world  to  and  for  itself,  conscious  to  itself  only." 
It  was  doubtless  because  of  her  vivid  imagination  that  the 
whole  period  of  childhood  was  haunted  by  an  intense  fear  of 
darkness  and  supernatural  influences.  Her  bed  was  visited 
by  dread  visions  of  the  ghost  of  Hamlet's  father,  of  Apollyon, 
and  other  fantastic  creatures  known  to  her  through  the 
illustrated  volumes  of  their  family  library.  These  visionary 
sufferings  lasted  until  she  was  nearly  twelve  years  old,  and  had 
she  not  possessed  a  strong  reasoning  power,  which  rejected  and 
condemned  her  fears  as  groundless,  the  consequences  might 
have  been  serious.  But  her  imagination  was,  on.  the  whole, 
less  a  source  of  pain  than  of  enjoyment,  as  by  its  magic  power 
she  found  a  constant  and  boundless  delight  in  the  beauty 
of  nature.  "The  stars  were  to  me,"  she  writes,  "as  the 


XXX  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON 

gates  of  heaven ;  the  rolling  of  the  waves  to  the  shore,  the 
graceful  reeds  and  grasses  bending  before  the  breeze  as  they 
grew  by  the  wayside,  the  minute  and  delicate  forms  of  insects, 
the  trembling  shadows  of  boughs  and  leaves  dancing  on  the 
ground  in  the  highest  noon,  these  were  to  me  perfect  pleasures 
of  which  the  imagery  now  in  my  mind  is  distinct."  An  in- 
teresting characteristic  of  the  child,  closely  allied  to  her  love 
of  nature,  was  her  sensitiveness  to  music.  Beautiful  music 
moved  her  to  a  passion  of  delight,  while  discordant  sounds  had 
the  curious  effect  upon  her  organism  of  sending  the  blood 
backward  to  her  heart. 

The  early  education  of  the  Murphy  children  was  intrusted 
to  a  family  governess,  Miss  Yokely,  a  most  conscientious  and 
exacting  teacher,  who  trained  her  pupils  thoroughly  and  well. 
Miss  Yokely's  duties  came  to  an  end  in  1803,  at  about  the  time 
when  Mr,  Murphy's  increasing  success  led  him  to  bring  his* fam- 
ily to  London,  in  or  near  which  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Anna  was  now  left  to  her  own  devices  in  the  matter  of 
education,  and  whatever  were  the  methods  of  her  self-teaching, 
it  is  certain  that  they  produced  no  mean  results.  She  had 
worked  hard  at  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish,  had  even  dipped 
into  Persian  (which  she  had  begun  to  study  with  a  neighbor- 
ing clergyman  when  seven  years  old !)  when,  at  the  early 
age  of  sixteen,  she  undertook  the  position  of  governess  in  the 
household  of  the  Marquis  of  Winchester.  Four  years  were 
spent  in  this  family,  after  which  it  does  not  appear  that  she 
accepted  any  ne\v  appointment  until  1821,  when  she  again  took 
up  the  duties  of  governess.  The  circumstance  which  led  to 
this  step  was  the  breaking  of  her  newly  formed  engagement 
with  Mr.  Robert  Jameson,  a  young  barrister  lately  introduced 
to  the  family.  Believing  herself  broken-hearted  by  this  early 
disappointment,  she  eagerly  embraced  an  opportunity  *to  travel 
with  a  pupil,  in  the  hope  of  assuaging  her  grief  by  change  of 
scene.  The  journey  proved,  as  was  to  be  expected,  of  the  great- 
est benefit  to  the  melancholy  young  traveller.  Italy  occupied 


MEMOIR   OF   MRS.    JAMESON  XXxi 

the  larger  share  of  the  tour,  especially  Florence  and  Rome, 
in  whose  treasures  Miss  Murphy  took  the  greatest  delight. 
"I  have  stored  my  mind,"  she  writes,  "  with  images  of  beauty 
and  grandeur  which  will  last  through  all  my  existence."  A 
careful  record  of  her  impressions  was  committed  to  her  diary, 
whose  pages  are  full  of  interesting  comment  and  description. 

Upon  her  return  to  England  she  became  governess  to  the 
children  of  Mr.  Littleton,  —  afterwards  Lord  Hatherton,  —  in 
whose  family  she  remained  four  years.  In  the  mean  time  the 
engagement  Avhich  had  been  so  hastily  broken  in  1821  was 
renewed,  and  in  1825  Anna  Murphy  and  Robert  Jameson 
were  married.  Then  followed  a  quiet  life  in  an  unpretentious 
little  home  in  Tottenham  Court  Road.  Here  were  taken  the 
first  steps  in  the  literary  career  afterwards  to  become  so  famous. 
The  young  wife  read  to  her  husband  the  diary  which  had  been 
a  source  of  so  much  pleasure  to  her  during  her  continental 
journeyings,  and  he  was  struck  with  its  originality.  A  little 
later  he  asked  her  to  read  it  to  a  friend  of  theirs,  a  certain 
Thomas,  who  came  often  to  their  house  as  a  prote'gd  of  Mr. 
Jameson.  Thomas  was  a  quaint  character,  whose  superior  in- 
telligence and  omnivorous  reading  had  raised  him  from  the 
cobbler's  bench  to  a  small  business  in  buying  and  selling  books. 
Among  other  higher  tastes,  he  had  acquired  considerable  pro- 
ficiency in  playing  the  guitar,  and  was  at  this  time  giving 
guitar  lessons  to  Mrs.  Jameson.  The  listener  heard  the  diary 
with  enthusiasm,  and  at  once  begged  the  manuscript  to  publish 
it.  Permission  was  accordingly  given,  Mrs.  Jameson  jestingly 
proposing  that  a  Spanish  guitar  should  be  her  own  share  of  the 
profits  should  the  undertaking  be  successful.  To  conceal  the 
identity  of  the  writer  and  her  travelling  companions,  a  few 
changes  were  made,  and  a  fictitious  conclusion  added.  Thus 
appeared,  anonymously,  "A  Lady's  Diary,"  which  was  so  well 
received  that  Thomas  was  offered  by  an  established  publishing 
house  fifty  pounds  for  the  copyright.  He  promptly  made  the 
sale,  and  devoted  ten  guineas  to  the  purchase  of  a  Spanish 


xxxii  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON 

guitar.  The  new  edition  of  the  book  was  rechristened  "  The 
Diary  of  an  Ennuyde,"  by  which  name  it  is  still  known.  The 
Diary  was  soon  in  all  the  book  clubs,  and  excited  much  discus- 
sion. The  style  was  clearly  original.  "  The  objects/'  says 
the  writer,  "  which  particularly  struck  my  fancy,  were  precisely 
those  which  passed  unnoticed  by  every  one  else,"  and  the  fact 
gives  piquancy  to  this  and  all  her  later  descriptions  of  travel. 

Mrs.  Jameson  now  became  a  well-known  literary  figure  in 
London,  and  soon  appeared  again  before  the  public  with  her 
"  Loves  of  the  Poets."  Sought  out  and  admired  both  by  her 
father's  friends  and  those  of  her  own  making,  she  formed  in 
this  period  of  her  young  womanhood  some  valuable  and  last- 
ing friendships.  One  of  these  was  with  Bryan  Waller  Procter 
("  Barry  Cornwall  ")  and  his  wife,  who,  in  turn,  introduced 
to  her  Miss  Fanny  Kemble,  then  about  sixteen  years  of  age. 
Miss  Kemble  had  been  greatly  fascinated  by  the  Diary,  and 
had  a  girlish  enthusiasm  in  meeting  its  clever  author.1  The 
two  soon  found  much  in  common,  and  when,  shortly  after,  the 
young  actress  made  her  professional  ddbut,  Mrs.  Jameson  was 
among  her  most  faithful  critics,  offering  praises  and  criticisms 
with  equal  kindness  and  good  judgment.  Her  warm  admira- 
tion for  her  young  friend's  talent  is  seen  in  the  descriptive 
text  she  afterwards  wrote  for  Hayter's  drawings  of  Fanny 
Kemble  as  Juliet,  —  a  most  glowing  tribute. 

In  the  mean  time  the  marriage  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jameson 
was  not  bringing  great  happiness  to  either.  Partly  on  this 
account  perhaps,  and  partly  because  he  met  with  no  great  pro- 
fessional success,  Mr.  Jameson  decided,  in  1829,  to  accept  a 
minor  official  appointment  in  the  island  of  Dominica.  As  it 
was  obviously  impracticable  for  him  to  take  his  wife  to  these 
untried  colonial  surroundings,  he  left  her  among  her  own 
family. 

1  An  account  of  their  meeting  is  given  in  Frances  A.  Kemble's  Records  of  a 
Girlhood  (New  York,  1879),  p.  127.  The  same  volume,  as  well  as  The  Records 
of  a  Later  Life  (New  York,  -1882),  contains  many  interesting  letters  from  Miss 
Kemble  to  Mrs.  Jameson. 


MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON  xxxiii 

Soon  after  her  husband's  departure,  Mrs.  Jameson  took  a 
delightful  continental  trip  with  her  father  and  Sir  Gerard  Noel, 
visiting,  for  the  first  time,  some  of  the  cities  of  Germany. 
Upon  her  return  to  England  she  made  her  home  in  London, 
with  her  sister  Louisa,  Mrs.  Bate.  Here  she  continued  her 
literary  work,  and,  in  1832,  published  her  "  Characteristics  of 
Shakespeare's  Women,"  dedicated  to  Fanny  Kemble.  This 
was  her  first  serious  literary  undertaking,  and  definitely  estab- 
lished her  popularity  as  a  writer.  At  about  this  time  she 
taught  herself  to  etch,  in  order  that  she  might  illustrate  her 
books  with  her  own  handiwork.  The  accomplishment  proved 
of  great  use  to  her  at  a  time  when  this  tedious  and  imperfect? 
method  of  reproduction  was  the  best  yet  discovered. 

Mr.  Jameson  returned  from  the  West  Indies  in  1833,  and, 
after  spending  a  few  months  with  his  wife  in  Mrs.  Bate's  home, 
accepted  a  new  and  more  promising  appointment  in  Canada. 
It  was  understood  at  his  departure  that  should  he  become  well 
established  in  the  new  field,  Mrs.  Jameson  would  join  him 
there  later. 

In  the  mean  time  she  proceeded  to  Germany  to  pursue  her 
plans  for  some  new  literary  work.  Germany  received  her  with 
open  arms.  The  learned  scholars  Tieck  and  Schlegel  welcomed 
her  as  a  fellow-student  of  Shakespeare  ;  the  sculptor  Dan- 
necker  and  the  painter  Retzsch,  as  an  art  critic  of  sympathetic 
insight  and  judgment ;  the  court  of  the  grand  duke  of  Austria, 
as  a  brilliant  guest ;  and  the  Goethe  family,  as  a  near  friend. 
To  Madame  de  Goethe,  the  daughter-in-law  of  the  great  poet, 
Mrs.  Jameson  had  been  introduced  by  Major  Noel,  with  whom 
she  had  become  acquainted  shortly  before  going  abroad,  and 
who  remained  through  all  her  life  a  most  chivalrous  and  de- 
voted friend.  His  presence  in  Weimar  at  the  time  of  her 
visit  added  much  to  her  enjoyment  of  this  historic  spot,  so 
full  of  interest  to  her  as  an  ardent  admirer  of  Goethe.  In 
the  midst  of  these  delightful  German  travels  Mrs.  Jameson 
was  hastily  recalled  to  England,  to  the  bedside  of  her  father. 


xxxiv  MEMOIR   OF  MRS.   JAMESON 

who  had  been  stricken  with  paralysis.  Always  very  dear  to 
him  in  health,  she  became  in  his  invalidism  his  chief  consola- 
tion and  support.  Other  family  duties  also  claimed  her  atten- 
tion. Still  making  her  home  with  her  sister  Louisa,  she 
assumed  almost  a  mother's  care  for  the  eldest  child,  Gerardine. 
Thus  she  was  unable  to  leave  England  again  for  more  than  a 
year,  and  in  the  mean  time  busied  herself,  in  whatever  leisure 
she  could  command,  with  shaping  the  miscellaneous  notes  col- 
lected during  her  two  visits  to  Germany.  These  took  final 
form  in  a  series  of  essays  called  "  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and 
Character,"  published  in  1834.1  What  the  "  Diary  of  an 
^Ennuyde"  attempted  for  Italy,  in  a  small  way,  and  with  an 
immature  hand,  the  new  book  did  for  Germany  much  more 
completely  and  skilfully,  and  with  the  maturer*  judgment 
gained  from  wider  experience.  Germany  was  then  but  little 
known  to  the  English,  and  the  "  Sketches  "  appeared  as  a  rev- 
elation of  German  life  and  character.  It  describes  many  of 
the  most  celebrated  Germans  of  the  time,  savants,  artists,  and 
musicians,  and  is  full  of  discriminating  comment  upon  the  mon- 
uments of  the  great  cities  and  the  art  works  in  their  galleries. 
It  was  during  Mrs.  Jameson's  residence  in  London,  in  1834, 
that  she  was  introduced  by  her  friend  Major  Noel  to  his 
cousin,  Lady  Byron,  with  whom  through  long  years  she  was 
on  the  closest  terms  of  intimacy.  Other  friends,  not  so  inti- 
mate, whom  she  mentions  in  the  correspondence  of  this  time, 
are  Harriet  Martineau  and  Mrs.  Austin,  —  two  celebrated 
women,  for  whom  she  always  entertained  a  cordial  admira- 
tion.2 In  the  summer  of  1834,  Mr.  Murphy  being  no  longer 

1  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and  Character  first  appeared  as  a  component  part  in 
a  series  of  volumes,  including  all  the  works  Mrs.  Jameson  had  previously  pub- 
lished, the  title  of  the  series  being  Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and  Abroad. 
Later  it  was,  and  is  still,  published  as  an  ihdependent  volume. 

2  It  is  inexplicable  that  Miss  Martineau,  after  many  years  of  pleasant  inter- 
course and  correspondence  with  Mrs.  Jameson,  in  which  there  was  an  appar- 
ently mutual  regard,  should,  upon  the  death  of  the  latter,  write  of  her  in  so 
ironical  and  unsympathetic  a  spirit.     Biographical  Sketches,  Harriet  Marti- 
neau.    London,  1870. 


MEMOIR   OF   MKS.    JAMESON  XXXA' 

in  a  critical  condition,  Mrs.  Jameson  could  be  spared  by  her 
family  to  continue  her  travels  and  studies  in  Germany.  Here 
she  spent  nearly  two  happy  years,  being  a  large  part  of  the 
time  with  her  dear  friend  Madame  de  Goethe.  A  tribute  to 
the  character  of  this  remarkable  woman  appears  in  the  pages 
of  the  "  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and  Character,"  and  explains 
the  fond  attachment  between  the  fascinating  "Ottilie"  and  the 
"  liebe  Anna." 

The  visit  in  Germany  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  per- 
emptory summons  of  Mr.  Jameson  calling  his  wife  to  join  him 
in  Toronto,  which  she  accordingly  did  in  December,  1836. 
The  rigor  of  the  northern  climate,  the  cheerlessness  of  the 
rudely  built  town,  and  the  lack  of  any  congenial  or  elevating 
society  made  a  gloomy  welcome  to  the  new-comer.  Still  more 
dreary  weeks  followed,  with  constantly  recurring  attacks  of 
chills  and  fever,  and  few  comforts  of  home  life.  It  is  touch- 
ing to  note  her  childlike  pleasure  in  receiving  one  day  some 
hothouse  flowers,  —  the  first  she  had  seen  since  leaving  Eng- 
land. Mere  physical  discomforts,  however,  were  of  minor 
moment  compared  with  the  deeper  cause  of  unhappiness  in 
the  strained  relations  between  herself  and  husband.  The 
passing  months  tested  fully  the  irremediable  incompatability 
between  them.  It  had  already  been  apparent  that  there  was 
little  or  no  real  harmony  in  the  union,  and  after  this  faithful 
endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  wife  to  renew  confidence  between 
them,  a  separation  was  mutually  agreed  upon.  Accordingly, 
Mrs.  Jameson  left  Toronto  in  the  summer,  and  after  travelling 
extensively  through  the  west  of  Canada,  sailed  from  New  York 
early  in  the  year  1838.  In  spite  of  the  unhappy  associations 
of  the  year  in  America,  it  brought  some  experiences  upon 
which  Mrs.  Jameson  could  always  look  back  with  pleasure. 
Of  this  exceptional  nature  were  her  visits  in  New  York 
and  Boston,  where  she  was  enthusiastically  received  by  her 
American  admirers.  Washington  Irving  and  Dr.  Channing 
paid  her  their  tributes  of  respect ;  her  old  friend,  Fanny 


Xxxvi  MEMOIR    OF   MRS.    JAMESON 

Kemble,  welcomed  her  to  her  Philadelphia  home.  One  new 
friend  was  won,  Miss  Catherine  Sedgwick,  then  very  popular 
as  the  author  of  "  Live  and  Let  Live,"  and  the  "  Poor  Rich 
Man  and  the  Eich  Poor  Man." 

Mrs.  Jameson  returned  to  England  a  disappointed  and  lonely 
woman.  To  an  affectionate  and  sensitive  nature  like  hers, 
the  severing  of  the  most  sacred  ties  of  her  life  could  not  but 
bring  a  sadness  which  must  henceforth  color  her  whole  future. 
But  she  took  up  her  broken  life  courageously,  determined  to 
make  of  it  all  that  she  could  for  the  benefit  of  others.  The 
members  of  her  family  needed  her  sadly.  Her  father,  though 
"  still  a  jovial  Irishman,"  required,  in  his  paralytic  condition, 
much  care  and  attention.  Two  unmarried  sisters  remained  at 
home  with  their  parents,  and  their  income  was  far  from  suf- 
ficient for  their  maintenance.  In  these  circumstances  Mrs. 
Jameson  set  herself  steadily  to  the  task  of  family  support,  and 
in  her  labor  of  love  found  great  consolation.  Of  the  family 
circle  at  this  time  her  American  friend,  Miss  Sedgwick,  gives 
us  a  charming  little  picture,  describing  her  own  visit  to  them 
in  1839.1  "  I  remember  well,"  she  writes,  "  his  (Mr.  Mur- 
phy's) cordial  salutation,  and  his  saying,  with  a  kind  reference 
to  my  little  book,  and  to  his  own  consolations,  '  Miss  Sedgwick, 
/  am  the  rich  poor  man/  and  saying  so,  he  looked  with  over- 
flowing eyes  upon  his  devoted  wife,  whom  I  always  found  sit- 
ting beside  him,  and  on  Mrs.  Jameson,  who  was  truly  his  joy 
and  pride  and  support."  Mr.  Murphy  died  in  1842,  greatly 
mourned  by  his  family. 

Mrs.  Jameson's  first  publication  after  her  return  from  Can- 
ada consisted  of  the  material  she  had  gathered  during  her  ab- 
sence. The  descriptions  of  her  travels  were  combined  with 
the  literary  studies  which  had  been  her  winter  occupation,  and 
the  whole  work  was  issued  under  the  title  "  Winter  Studies 
and  Summer  Kambles."  In  1840  she  undertook  her  first  work 

1   Vide  page  378  et  seq.  of  the  Life  and  Letters  of  Catherine   M.  Sedgwick, 
edited  by  Mary  E.  Dewey.     New  York,  1871. 


MEMOIK   OF   MRS.   JAMESON  XXXVli 

devoted  exclusively  to  Art.  This  was  the  laborious  but  inter, 
esting  task  of  compiling  "  A  Companion  to  Private  Galleries  m 
England."  It  was  during  the  preparation  of  this  volume  that 
she  first  became  acquainted  with  Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  who 
proved  a  most  kind  and  helpful  friend.  The  "  Companion  " 
was  so  successful  that  it  was  soon  followed  by  a  "Handbook  to 
the  Public  Galleries  in  and  near  London,"  pronounced  by  the 
''Athenaeum"  "one  of  the  best  executed  works  which  has 
been  turned  out  in  these  days  of  broken  literary  promises  and 
unperformed  literary  duties."  Mrs.  Jameson  now  undertook 
new  and  more  serious  plans  for  Art  publications.  In  1842 
she  began  a  series  of  papers  on  the  Early  Italian  Painters, 
which  were  published  in  the  "  Penny  Magazine  "  and  attracted 
much  attention.  At  the  same  time  she  first  put  her  hand  to 
the  most  extensive  and  valuable  work  of  her  life,  the  series 
on  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  This  was  a  subject  for  which 
she  had  already  collected  many  notes,  both  in  her  continental 
journeyings  and  in  her  visits  to  the  private  collections  of  Eng- 
land. The  reader  of  the  "  Diary  "  and  of  the  "  Sketches  " 
could  not  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  writer's  rare  insight 
into  the  significance  and  beauty  of  religious  Art.  She  often 
discovered  a  meaning  which  had  previously  been  entirely 
overlooked  by  art  critics.  Thus  we  find  her  upon  her  first 
visit  to  Rome,  when  a  mere  tyro  in  art  criticism,  boldly 
challenging  the  accepted  title  of  Domenichino's  Cumsean 
Sibyl,  and  pronouncing  it  a  St.  Cecilia.1  Coming  to  Dresden 
a  few  years  later,  she  interpreted  Correggio's  great  painting 
as  "  a  grand  piece  of  lyrical  and  sacred  poetry,"  in  which 
St.  George  figures  as  "religious  magnanimity,"  St.  John, 
"  religious  enthusiasm,"  St.  Geminiani,  "  religious  munifi- 
cence," and  St.  Peter  Martyr,  "religious  fortitude."  2  Obser- 
vations like  these  seemed  intuitive  with  her,  and  she  was, 
therefore,  naturally  drawn  to  a  literary  work  in  which  she 

1  See  the  Diary  of  an  Ennuyee,  p.  137. 

2  See  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and  Character,  p.  356. 


xxxviii  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON 

could  unfold  to  eyes  less  gifted  than  her  own  the  poetry  of 
sacred  and  legendary  Art.  The  task  was  one  requiring  an 
enormous  amount  of  research  and  study,  and  for  this  Mrs. 
Jameson  was  admirably  adapted.  An  insatiable  reader  and  an 
excellent  linguist,  she  had  already  an  extensive  familiarity  with 
French,  German,  and  Italian  literature.  Many  interruptions 
hindered  the  rapid  progress  of  the  work,  but  by  January, 
1845,  it  had  advanced  so  far  that  she  could  select  a  certain 
portion  of  it  to  issue  in  a  series  of  papers  in  the  "  Athenaeum." 
By  this  means  she  was  enabled  to  test  the  popularity  of  the 
subject,  and  the  result  was  so  satisfactory  that  the  following 
summer  she  pushed  her  plans  forward  by  some  months  of 
study  in  Dresden  and  Paris.  A  year  later  she  concluded  nego- 
tiations with  her  publishers,  and  immediately  set  out  again  for 
the  Continent,  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  volume. 
This  time  she  was  accompanied  by  her  favorite  niece,  Gerardine 
Bate,  now  about  sixteen  years  old,  a  charming  girl,  and  a  val- 
uable assistant  in  her  aunt's  labors.  They  had  progressed  to 
Paris,  when  an  incident  occurred,  as  delightful  as  it  was  sur- 
prising. This  was  the  sudden  appearance  of  Mrs.  Jameson's 
long-time  friend,  Elizabeth  Barrett,1  whom  she  had  left  in 
London,  ostensibly  "  satisfied  with  the  sofa  and  silence,"  trans- 
formed into  the  wife  of  Robert  Browning,  and  setting  forth  on 
a  wedding  journey  !  The  meeting  was  mutually  gratifying, 
and  the  friends  united  to  form  a  most  congenial  travelling 
party.  For  six  weeks  they  remained  together,  at  the  end  of 
which  Mrs.  Jameson  was  obliged  to  leave  her  friends  in  Pisa, 
going  on  with  her  niece  to  Florence.  Here  for  two  happy 
months  they  worked  together  in  gallery,  church,  and  cloister. 
Pleasant  lodgings  were  taken  in  the  Piazza  Santa  Croce,  and 
aunt  and  niece  entered  with  enjoyment  into  the  social  pleasures 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  colony.  The  next  step  was  to  Rome, 

1  Mrs.  Jameson  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Miss  Barrett  in  1844,  and  tlie 
latter  had  furnished  a  translation  from  the  Odyssey  for  the  paper  on  The  Xan- 
thian  Marbles,  published  in  1846. 


MEMOIR    OF   MRS.   JAMESON  XXXIX 

where  the  dear  friend  "  Ottilie  *  awaited  them.  Then  fol- 
lowed a  wonderful  winter  in  the  Eternal  City,  to  which  the 
niece,  writing  in  after  years  the  memoirs  of  her  aunt,  looked 
back  as  upon  an  enchanted  time.  Although  Mrs.  Jameson's 
work  did  not  permit  her  to  go  into  society,  the  drawing-room 
of  her  lodgings  in  the  Piazza  di  Spagna  was  a  centre  for 
many  brilliant  gatherings.  Here  came  Dr.  Braun  and  Charles 
Hemans,  the  archaeologists ;  John  Gibson,  the  sculptor ;  Cor- 
nelius and  Overbeck,  the  German  pre-Raphaelites ;  Lord 
Compton  and  Lord  Walpole,  English  painters ;  Madame 
de  Goethe  and  her  German  friends,  and  many  others  dis- 
tinguished in  art  and  letters.  In  the  midst  of  them  sat  the 
gracious  hostess,  receiving  with  gentle  dignity  the  well-de- 
served honors  of  her  little  court.  She  is  described  as  an  at- 
tractive woman  with  reddish  hair  and  a  skin  of  "dazzling 
whiteness."  Her  arms  fand  hands  were  beautiful.  Her  face 
was  habitually  refined  and  spirituelle  in  expression,  and  was 
capable  of  a  marvellous  power  of  concentrated  feeling.  She 
had  thin  colorless  lips  "  fit  for  incisive  meanings,"  and  clear 
intellectual  blue  eyes  that  could  flash  at  will  indignation  or 
love.1  She  was  a  brilliant  talker,  the  best,  said  those  who  had 
heard  many,  that  they  ever  heard. 

The  outcome  of  the  social  gayeties  of  the  winter  was  the 
engagemenfc^of  Miss  Bate  to  Mr.  Robert  MacPherson,  a  young 
Scotch  artist.  Mrs.  Jameson  was  naturally  disappointed  to 
give  up  so  early  the  niece  who  had  become  a  helpful  and  dear 
companion,  but  at  length  yielded  cheerfully  to  the  inevitable. 
The  two  returned  to  London  in  the  spring,  bringing  home  the 
completed  volumes  of  the  first  series  of  <fc6acred  and  Legend- 
ary Art." 

Through  all  the  years  in  which  Mrs.  Jameson  was  engaged 
upon  this  work,  her  art  studies  were  by  no  means  her  exclu- 

1  Mrs.  Jameson's  personal  appearance  is  described  by  three  of  her  friends: 
Miss  Fanny  Kemble  (Records of  a  Girlhood),  Miss  Sedffwick  (Life  and  Let- 
ers),  and  Mrs.  Browning  (Letters  to  Richard  H.  Home,  London,  1877). 


xl  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON 

sive  literary  pursuits.  Always  keenly  alive  to  all  public  inter- 
ests, she  frequently  made  slight  digressions  on  these  subjects 
in  the  pages  of  her  miscellaneous  writings.1  In  1843,  when 
a  commissioner's  report  made  public  the  terrible  condition  of 
women  and  children  employed  in  the  mining  and  manufacturing 
districts,  she  joined  others  in  indignant  protest  against  such  a 
titate  of  affairs.  Her  article  on  the  subject  in  the  "  Athe- 
nseum  "  deserves  to  be  remembered  with  Elizabeth  Barrett's 
"  Cry  of  the  Children,"  as  a  noble  woman's  outcry  against  a 
great  public  wrong.  In  1846  she  published  two  important 
essays  on  subjects  of  social  science,  "  Woman's  Mission  and 
Woman's  Position,"  and  the  "  Relative  Position  of  Mothers 
and  Governesses."  2  That  her  writing  on  public  questions 
was  in  a  forcible  and  eloquent  strain  we  may  well  infer  from 
a  complimentary  allusion  made  soon  after  by  Miss  Martineau, 
to  her  "  immortal  paragraph  about  the  New  Poor  Law." 
Upon  the  completion  of  the  manuscript  of  "  Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art,"  Mrs.  Jameson's  thoughts  turned  again  to  the 
political  questions  of  the  hour,  though  not  to  write  of  them 
except  in  her  private  correspondence.  It  was  a  time  of 
great  excitement,  when  the  revolution  in  France  and  the 
Chartist  agitations  in  England  were  occupying  the  thoughts  of 
all.  Ireland,  too,  was  full  of  distressing  grievances,  and  a  visit 
here  in  the  fall  of  1848  aroused  Mrs.  Jameson's  pftrfound  pity 
for  her  native  land.  During  this  visit  she  received  from  her 
publishers  the  first  copy  of  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art." 
"  It  looks  very  pretty,"  she  writes,  "  and  I  get  plenty  of  com- 
pliments, as  a  matter  of  course,  but  compliments  do  not  mean 
success,  and,  as  yeV,  I  do  not  know  what  to  hope  on  that 
score."  Success,  however,  followed  in  a  measure  which  the 
author  could  never  have  dreamed  of.  The  leading  periodicals 
received  the  work  with  favorable  reviews.  Among  them,  none 

1  See  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and  Character,  p.  132  et  seq.;   Winter  Stiidies 
and  Summer  Rambles  (New  York,  1839),  vol.  i.  pp.  144,  323. 

2  Published  in  Memoirs  and  Essays. 


MEMOIR   OF   MRS.    JAMESON  xli 

was  more  appreciative  than  that  of  Charles  Kingsley  in  "  Fra- 
ser's."  Both  subject  and  treatment  were  exactly  such  as  would 
appeal  to  the  great  preacher's  poetic  imagination.  Of  the  nar- 
rative portion  he  says,  "  Never  were  legends  narrated  with  more 
discernment  and  simplicity ;  "  and  of  the  descriptions  of  paint- 
ings, "  Nowhere  do  we  recollect  criticisms  more  general,  bril- 
liant, picturesque.  Often  they  have  deeper  merits,  and  descend 
to  those  fundamental  laws  of  beauty  and  religion  by  which  all 
Christian  Art  must  ultimately  be  tested."  Characteristics  such 
as  these  must  needs  give  permanent  value  to  a  literary  work. 
The  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art "  has  been  adopted  as  the 
standard  authority  in  its  unique  field  for  two  generations,  and 
time  serves  only  to  deepen  its  value  as  an  interpretative  guide 
to  great  religious  Art.  "  God  bless  you  for  this  book,"  wrote 
Henry  W.  Longfellow  from  across  the  seas,  and  the  blessing  is 
echoed  from  countless  homes  of  England  and  America. 

The  first  work  on  "  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,"  treating  of 
the  saints  and  martyrs,  was  followed  in  due  time  by  a  second 
series  on  the  "Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders,"  the  notes  for 
which  had  been  previously  gathered.  The  "  Legends  of  the 
Madonna "  was  next  in  order,  appearing  in  1852.  This  had 
been  by  far  the  most  difficult  of  the  volumes,  owing  to  the 
embarrassment  of  presenting  the  subject  in  a  way  that  should 
give  no  offence  alike  to  Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic.  The 
delicate  spirit  with  which  disputed  questions  are  touched,  the 
frank  impartiality  of  the  whole  treatment,  set  it  above  criti- 
cism, and  make  it  the  crowning  literary  achievement  of  the 
writer's  life. 

At  this  time,  from  1851-1854,  Mrs.  Jameson  was  living  in 
Bruton  Street  with  her  sister' Camilla,  Mrs.  Sherwin.  Here  she 
held  every  week  a  simple  evening  party,  at  which  many  of  her 
distinguished  literary  friends  were  wont  to  appear.  The  year 
1854  was  saddened  by  the  death  of  her  mother.  In  the  same 
year  Mr.  Jameson  also  died  in  Canada,  and,  contrary  to  his 
promise,  failed  to  make  provision  for  his  widow.  Being  now 


xlii  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON 

without  the  income  he  had  allowed  her,  and  still  bearing  the 
responsibility  of  supporting  her  sisters,  she  was  somewhat  dis- 
tressed with  financial  worries.  In  this  crisis,  a  company  of 
friends,  of  whom  Mrs.  Procter  was  chief,  combined  to  present 
her  with  a  gift  annuity  of  £100.  This  generous  present  was 
proffered  in  a  spirit  so  affectionate  and  delicate  that  the  recip- 
ient could  not  but  accept  it  with  grateful  appreciation.  In 
addition  to  this,  Mrs.  Jameson  had  since  1851  received  from 
the  Crown  a  pension  of  £100  per  annum,  in  recognition  of  her 
valuable  literary  services.  Thus  she  was  comfortably  provided 
for,  and  "  taken  out  of  slavery  to  booksellers  and  book- 
makers." 

Mrs.  Jameson  had  never  lost  interest  in  social  questions, 
and  in  1855  resumed  active  part  in  the  work.  Her  special  sub- 
ject was  now  charity  organizations,  a  matter  at  that  time 
arousing  great  interest  in  England  from  the  influence  of  Flor- 
ence Nightingale.  Many  distinguished  women  took  up  the 
new  cause,  among  them  Lady  Byron,  whose  friendship  had 
always  exercised  a  strong  influence  upon  Mrs.  Jameson.  Mrs. 
Jameson's  plan  was  to  give  a  series  of  lectures,  beginning  with 
one  "On  Sisters  of  Charity  at  Home  and  Abroad."  This  she 
delivered  in  a  drawing-room  with  great  success,  but  her  physical 
strength  did  not  permit  her  to  continue  public  speaking.  Soon 
after  she  went  abroad  for  her  health,  and  devoted  herself  un- 
tiringly to  the  examination  of  social  conditions  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Hospitals  and  charity  institutions  were  visited  in  Paris, 
Vienna,  Turin,  and  Milan,  and  the  new  information  was  set 
forth  in  an  address  on  the  "  Communion  of  Labor,"  deliv- 
ered upon  her  return  to  England  in  1856.  This  and  her  pre- 
vious lecture,  together  with  a  Letter  to  Lord  John  Russell, 
were  published  later  in  one  volume,  and  constitute  no  small 
contribution  to  the  progressive  thought  of  the  day. 

In  1857  Mrs.  Jameson  again  turned  her  face  towards  Italy, 
having  as  a  first  object  the  preparation  of  a  second  edition  of 
the  "  Legends  of  the  Madonna,"  and  later,  new  literary  under- 
takings. Here  she  rejoined  for  a  season  her  beloved  "  child," 


MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON  xliii 

Gerardine,  now  Mrs.  MacPherson.  The  niece  noted  that  long 
labors  were  telling  at  last  upon  her  aunt,  and  this  was  the 
more  apparent  when  the  latter  returned  to  Rome  in  1859. 
This  winter,  however,  was  a  busy  and  happy  one.  Friends, 
old  and  new,  contributed  to  her  enjoyment.  Gibson  and  Mr. 
Charles  Hemans  were  there  as  of  yore,  and  the  Hawthornes, 
for  the  first  time.  Miss  Bessie  Parkes  was  also  of  the  privi- 
leged circle,  a  young  woman  very  active  in  the  social  science  dis- 
cussions of  London,  and  an  ardent  admirer  of  Mrs.  Jameson. 
Some  of  these  friends  occasionally  accbmpanied  Mrs.  Jameson 
about  the  city,  and  to  such  her  conversation  was  a  revelation. 
As  Mr.  Kingsley  had  written  of  her,  "  she  comprehended  at 
once  the  idea  and  central  laws  of  a  work  of  art."  "  A  pic- 
ture," she  herself  told  Miss  Parkes,  "was  like  a  plain  writing; 
when  she  looked  at  it,  she  seemed  to  feel  instantly  for  what 
purpose  it  had  been  wrought."  The  absorbing  interest  of  this 
time  was  the  collection  of  material  to  carry  to  full  completion 
the  series  on  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  Two  memorandum 
books  were  being  filled  with  notes  on  the  Life  of  Our  Lord  and 
Old  Testament  subjects.  In  the  spring  Mrs.  Jameson  went 
to  Florence,  especially  attractive  to  her  for  the  presence  of  the 
Brownings.  By  the  following  fall  (1859)  she  was  again  in 
England,  having  hastened  somewhat  for  the  special  purpose  of 
attending  a  social  science  meeting.  This  Avas  perhaps  her 
last  notable  public  appearance.  Miss  Parkes  relates  how  a 
deep  hush  fell  on  the  audience  when  she  rose  to  join  in  the  dis- 
cussion. "Every  eye  bent  eagerly  upon  her, 'and  every  ear 
drank  in  her  thoughtful  and  weighty  words."  1  What  she 
called  her  "  family  nest "  was  now  at  Brighton,  where  her  two 
sisters  kept  a  home.  Between  this  place  and  London  she 
came  and  went  continually,  carrying  on  her  studies  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  It  was  when  she  was  in  London,  one  stormy 
March  day,  that,  returning  to  her  lodgings  after  a  morning  in 
the  Museum,  she  took  a  heavy  cold.  A  day  or  two  later 

^    Vilt  p.  448  of   Viynettes,    by    Bessie  Raynor  Parkes,   London   and  New 
York,  1860. 


xliv  MEMOIR   OF   MRS.   JAMESON. 

Miss  Parkes  called,  to  find  her  very  ill,  and  immediately  sum- 
moned the  sisters  from  Brighton.  But  the  disease  made  rapid 
progress,  and  on  March  17, 1860,  within  a  week  from  the  time 
of  her  seizure,  Anna  Jameson  passed  away,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
five.  Her  body  was  laid  at  rest  in  Kensal  Green,  by  the 
graves  of  her  father  and  mother. 

"  No  woman  has  written  more  variously,  and  few  —  men  or 
women  —  so  well,"  wrote  Miss  Catherine  Sedgwick  upon  the 
death  of  her  friend,  and  the  praise  was  well  won.  Mrs.  Jame- 
son's range  of  labors  included  biography,  travel,  literary  criti- 
cism and  social  science,  and  her  work  was  admirable  in  all  these 
fields.  But  her  supreme  excellence  —  and  her  enduring  fame 
—  is  in  the  interpretation  of  sacred  Art.  Here  she  was  at  her 
best.  Not  gifted,  as  she  herself  well  knew,  with  great  creative 
imagination,  she  possessed  in  rare  measure  the  power  to  appre- 
ciate and  interpret  this  faculty  in  others.  With  this  was 
united  a  remarkable  gift  of  expression,  which  makes  all  that 
she  wrote  the  most  delightful  reading.  The  characteristics  of 
her  style  are  essentially  feminine.  With  her  progressive  ideas 
on  larger  opportunities  for  women,  she  had  no  mistaken  notion 
that  a  woman's  work  should  imitate  a  man's,  and  freely  poured 
into  her  writing  all  the  enthusiastic  fervor  of  her  warm  heart. 
In  addition  to  her  lighter  imaginative  qualities,  she  had  an 
antiquarian's  love  of  research.  Musty  old  books  of  legends 
were  to  her  a  perfect  storehouse  of  treasures.  Out  of  these 
dry  bones,  collected  with  arduous  and  unceasing  toil,  she  called 
forth  those  living  images  of  saint  and  martyr  which  "  make 
our  hearts  glow  within  us  in  admiration  and  gratitude."  Her 
finest  characteristic  is  her  reverent  and  catholic  spirit.  She 
looked  at  sacred  Art  as  the  expression  of  the  highest  human 
aspirations,  and  sought  earnestly  in  every  work  the  essential 
truth  of  the  conception.  Beneath  the  external  incongruities 
of  mediaeval  dogma  and  superstition  she  saw  the  great  funda- 
mental realities  of  life,  and  these  were  the  burden  of  her  message 
to  humanity. 

E.  M.  H. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  MRS.  JAMESON'S 
WORKS 

1826.  The  Diary  of  an  Ennuyee. 

1829.  Loves  of  the  Poets. 

1831.  Celebrated  Female  Sovereigns. 

1831.  Memoirs,     Biographical     and     Critical,     illustrating    the 

Diaries  of  Pepys,  Evelyn,  Clarendon,  and  other  Contem- 
porary Writers.  (The  text  of  "  The  Beauties  of  the 
Court  of  King  Charles  II.") 

1832.  Characteristics  of  Shakespeare's  Women. 

1834.  Visits  and  Sketches  at  Home  and  Abroad.  (4  vols.,  con- 
taining Mrs.  Jameson's  previously  published  works  and 
in  addition,  Sketches  of  Art,  Life,  and  Character.) 

1834*  Translation  of  the  text  of  Retzsch's  "  Fancies."  (Illustra- 
tions of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Shakespeare,  etc.) 

1838.     Winter  Studies  and  Summer  Rambles. 

1840.  Social  Life  in  Germany.     (A  translation  of  the  domestic 

dramas  by  Princess  Amelia  of  Saxony.) 

1841.  Companion  to  Private  Galleries. 

1842.  Handbook  to  the  Public  Galleries  in  and  near  London. 

1845.  Memoirs  of  the  Early  Italian  Painters. 

1846.  Memoirs   and   Essays  (1.  The   Home   of   Titian.     2.  The 

Xanthian  Marbles.  3.  The  Life  of  Washington  Allston. 
4.  The  Lyrical  Drama  in  England.  5.  The  Condition  of 
the  Women  of  the  Working  Classes.  6.  The  Means 
afforded  for  the  Training  of  Women.  7.  The  relative 
*  Position  of  Mothers  and  Governesses). 

1846.  Introduction  and  descriptive  text  of  Griiner's  Engravings 
of  the  frescoes  in  Buckingham  Palace  Summer  House. 

1848.  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  First  Series.  (Saints  and  Mar- 
tyrs.) 

1850.  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders.     (Second  series  of  Sacred 

and  Legendary  Art.) 

1851.  Companion   to  the  Court   of  Modern  Sculpture.     (Guide 

book  for  Crystal  Palace  Exhibition.) 

1852.  Legends  of  the  Madonna.     (Third  series  of  Sacred  and  Le- 

gendary Art.) 
1854.     Commonplace  Book  of  Thoughts,  Memories,  and  Fancies. 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY   ART 


I.  INTRODUCTION 

I.    OF  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GENERAL  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  THE 
LEGENDS  REPRESENTED  IN  ART 

WE  cannot  look  round  a  picture  gallery  —  we  cannot  turn 
over  a  portfolio  of  prints  after  the  old  masters,  nor  even  the 
modern  engravings  which  pour  upon  iis  daily,  from  Paris, 
Munich,  or  Berlin  —  without  perceiving  how  many  of  the 
most  celebrated  productions  of  Art,  more  particularly  those 
which  have  descended  to  us  from  the  early  Italian  and  Ger- 
man schools,  represent  incidents  and  characters  taken  from  the 
once  popular  legends  of  the  Catholic  Church.  This  form  of 
hero-worship  has  become,  since  the  Reformation,  strange  to  us 
—  as  far  removed  from  our  sympathies  and  associations  as  if 
it  were  antecedent  to  the  fall  of  Babylon  and  related  to  the 
religion  of  Zoroaster,  instead  of  being  left  but  two  or  three 
centuries  behind  us,  and  closely  connected  with  the  faith  of 
our  forefathers  and  the  history  of  civilization  and  Christianity. 
Of  late  years,  with  a  growing  passion  for  the  works  of  Art  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  there  has  arisen  among  us  a  desire  to  com- 
prehend the  state  of  feeling  which  produced  them,  and  the 
legends  and  traditions  on,  which  they  are  founded  ;  a  desire 
to  understand,  and  to  bring  to  some  surer  critical  test,  repre- 
sentations which  have  become  familiar  without  being  intelligi- 
ble. To  enable  us  to  do  this,  Ave  must  pause  for  a  moment  at 
the  outset ;  and,  before  we  plunge  into  the  midst  of  things, 
ascend  to  higher  ground,  and  command  a  far  wider  range  of 
illustration  than  has  yet  been  attempted,  in  order  to  take  cog- 
nizance of  principles  and  results  which,  if  not  new,  must  be 
contemplated  in  a  new  relation  to  each  other. 


2  SACRED   AND   LEGENDARY   ART 

The  Legendary  Art  of  the  Middle  'Ages  sprang  out  of  the 
legendary  literature  of  the  preceding  ages.  For  three  centuries 
at  least,  this  literature,  the  only  literature  which  existed  at 
the  time,  formed  the  sole  mental  and  moral  nourishment  of 
the  people  of  Europe.  The  romances  of  Chivalry,  which  long 
afterwards  succeeded,  were  confined  to  particular  classes,  and 
left  no  impress  on  Art  beyond  the  miniature  illuminations 
of  a  few  manuscripts.  This  legendary  literature,  on  the  con- 
trary, which  had  worked  itself  into  the  life  of  the  people, 
became,  like  the  antique  mythology,  as  a  living  soul  diffused 
through  the  loveliest  forms  of  Art,  still  vivid  and  vivifying, 
even  when  the  old  faith  in  its  mystical  significance  was  lost  or 
forgotten.  And  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  these  legends 
had  their  sole  origin  in  the  brains  of  dreaming  monks.  The 
wildest  of  them  had  some  basis  of  truth  to  rest  on,  and  the 
forms  which  they  gradually  assumed  were  but  the  necessary 
result  of  the  age  which  produced  them.  They  beqame  the 
intense  expression  of  that  inner  life  which  revolted  against 
the  desolation  and  emptiness  of  the  outward  existence  ;  of 
those  crushed  and  outraged  sympathies  which  cried  aloud  for 
rest,  and  refuge,  and  solace,  and  could  nowhere  find  them.  It 
will  be  said,  "  In  the  purer  doctrine  of  the  Gospel."  But 
where  was  that  to  be  jfound  ?  The  Gospel  was  not  then  the 
heritage  of  the  poor  :  Christ,  as  a  comforter,  walked  not  among 
men.  His  own  blessed  teaching  was  inaccessible  except  to  the 
learned :  it  was  shut  up  in  rare  manuscripts  ;  it  was  perverted 
and  sophisticated  by  the  passions  and  the  blindness  of  those 
few  to  whom  it  was  accessible.  The  bitter  disputes  in  the 
early  Church  relative  to  the  nature  of  the  Godhead,  the  subtle 
distinctions  and  incomprehensible  arguments  of  the  theologians, 
the  dread  entertained  by  the  predominant  Church  of  any 
heterodox  opinions  concerning  the  divinity  of  the  Redeemer, 
had  all  conspired  to  remove  Him,jn  His  personal  character 
of  Teacher  and  Saviour,  far  away  from  the  hearts  of  the 
benighted  and  miserable  people  —  far,  far  away  into  regions 
speculative,  mysterious,  spiritual,  whither  they  could  not,  dared 
not  follow  Him.  In  this  state  of  things,  as  it  has  been  re- 
marked by  a  distinguished  Avriter,  "  Christ  became  the  object 
of  a  remoter,  a  more  awful  adoration.  The  mind  began,  there- 
fore, to  seek  out,  or  eagerly  to  seize,  some  other  more  material 
beings  in  closer  alliance  with  human  sympathies."  And  the 


INTRODUCTION  3 

same  author,  after  tracing  in  vivid  and  beautiful  language  the 
dangerous  but  natural  consequences  of  this  feeling,  thus  sums 
up  the  result :  "  During  the  perilous  and  gloomy  days  of  per- 
secution, the  reverence  for  those  who  endured  martyrdom  for 
the  religion  of  Christ  had  grown  up  out  of  the  best  feelings  of 
man's  improved  nature.  Reverence  gradually  grew  into  venera- 
tion, worship,  adoration :  and  although  the  more  rigid  theology 
maintained  a  marked  distinction  between  the  honor  shown 
to  the  martyrs,  and  that  addressed  to  the  Redeemer  and  the 
Supreme  Being,  the  line  was  too  fine  and  invisible  not  to  be 
transgressed  by  excited  popular  feeling."  (Milman,  Hist,  of 
Christianity,  iii.  540.) 

"  We  live,"  says  the  poet,  "  through  admiration,  hope,  and 
love."  Out  of  these  vital  aspirations  —  not  indeed  always 
"  well  or  wisely  placed,"  but  never,  as  in  the  heathen  mythol- 
ogy, degraded  to  vicious  and  contemptible  objects  —  arose  and 
spread  the  universal  passion  for  the  traditional  histories  of  the 
saints  and  martyrs,  —  personages  endeared  and  sanctified  in 
all  hearts,  partly  as  examples  of  the  loftiest  virtue,  partly  as 
benign  intercessors  between  suffering  humanity  and  that  Deity 
who,  in  every  other  light  than  as  a  God  of  Vengeance,  had 
been  veiled  from  their  eyes  by  the  perversities  of  schoolmen 
and  fanatics,  till  He  had  receded  beyond  their  reach,  almost 
beyond  their  comprehension.  Of  the  prevalence  and  of  the 
incalculable  influence  of  this  legendary  literature  from  the 
seventh  to  the  tenth  century,  that  is,  just  about  the  period 
when  Modern  Art  was  struggling  into  existence,  we  have  a 
most  striking  picture  in  Guizot's  "  Histoire  de  la  Civilisation." 
"  As  after  the  siege  of  Troy,"  says  this  philosophical  and  elo- 
quent writer,  "  there  were  found,  in  every  city  of  Greece,  men 
who  collected  the  traditions  and  adventures  of  heroes,  and 
sung  them  for  the  recreation  of  the  people,  till  these  recitals 
became  a  national  passion,  a  national  poetry ;  so,  at  the  time 
of  which  we  speak,  the  traditions  of  what  may  be  called  the 
heroic  ages  of  Christianity  had  the  same  interest  for  the  na- 
tions of  Europe.  There  were  men  who  made  it  their  business 
to  collect  them,  to  transcribe  them,  to  read  or  recite  them 
aloud,  for  the  edification  and  delight  of  the  people.  And  this 
was  the  only  literature,  properly  so  called,  of  that  time." 

Now,  if  we  go  back  to  the  authentic  histories  of  the  suffer- 


4  SACRED   AND   LEGENDARY   ART 

ings  and  heroism  of  the  early  martyrs,  we  shall  find  enough 
there,  both  of  the  wonderful  and  the  affecting,  to  justify  the 
credulity  and  enthusiasm  of  the  unlettered  people,  who  saw  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  believe  in  one  miracle  as  well  as 
in  another.  In  these  universally  diffused  legends,  we  may 
recognize  the  means,  at  least  one  of  the  means,  by  which  a 
merciful  Providence,  working  through  its  own  immutable  laws, 
had  provided  against  the  utter  depravation,  almost  extinction, 
of  society.  Of  the  "  Dark  Ages,"  emphatically  so  called,  the 
period  to  which  I  allude  was  perhaps  the  darkest ;  it  was  "  of 
Night's  black  arch  the  keystone."  At  a  time  when  men  were 
given  over  to  the  direst  evils  that  can  afflict  humanity, — igno- 
rance, idleness,  wickedness,  misery ;  at  a  time  when  the  every- 
day incidents  of  life  Avere  a  violation  of  all  the  moral  instincts 
of  mankind  ;  at  a  time  when  all  things  seemed  abandoned  to  a 
blind  chance,  or  the  brutal  law  of  force ;  when  there  was  no 
repose,  no  refuge,  no  safety  anywhere ;  when  the  powerful 
inflicted,  and  the  weak  endured,  whatever  we  can  conceive  of 
most  revolting  and  intolerable  ;  when  slavery  was  recognized 
by  law  throughout  Europe ;  when  men  fled  to  cloisters,  to 
shut  themselves  from  oppression,  and  women  to  shield  them- 
selves from  outrage  ;  when  the  manners  were  harsh,  the  lan- 
guage gross  ;  when  all  the  softer  social  sentiments,  as  pity, 
reverence,  tenderness,  found  no  resting-place  in  the  actual  rela- 
tions of  life  ;  when  for  the  higher  ranks  there  was  only  the 
fierce  excitement  of  war,  and  on  the  humbler  classes  lay  the 
weary,  dreary  monotony  of  a  stagnant  existence,  poor  in  pleas- 
ures of  every  kind,  without  aim,  without  hope  ;  then  —  won- 
drous reaction  of  the  ineffaceable  instincts  of  good  implanted 
within  us !  —  arose  a  literature  which  reversed  the  outward 
order  of  things,  which  asserted  and  kept  alive  in  the  hearts  of 
men  those  pure  principles  of  Christianity  which  were  outraged 
in  their  daily  actions ;  a  literature  in  which  peace  was  repre- 
sented as  better  than  war,  and  sufferance  more  dignified  than 
resistance  ;  which  exhibited  poverty  and  toil  as  honorable,  and 
charity  as  the  first  of  virtues ;  which  held  up  to  imitation  and 
emulation  self-sacrifice  in  the  cause  of  good,  and  contempt  of 
death  for  conscience'  sake ;  a  literature  in  which  the  tender- 
ness, the  chastity,  the  heroism  of  woman  played  a  conspicuous 
part ;  which  distinctly  protested  against  slavery,  against  vio- 
lence, against  impurity  in  word  and  deed ;  which  refreshed  the 


INTRODUCTION  5 

fevered  and  darkened  spirit  with  images  of  moral  beauty  and 
truth  ;  revealed  bright  glimpses  of  a  better  land,  where  "  the 
wicked  cease  from  troubling,"  and  brought  down  the  angels  of 
God  with  shining  wings  and  bearing  crowns  of  glory,  to  do 
battle  with  the  demons  of  darkness,  to  catch  the  fleeting  soul 
of  the  triumphant  martyr,  and  carry  it  at  once  into  a  paradise 
of  eternal  blessedness  and  peace  ! 

Now  the  Legendary  Art  of  the  three  centuries  which  com- 
prise the  revival  of  learning,  was,  as  I  have  said,  the  reflection 
of  this  literature,  of  this  teaching.  Considered  in  this  point 
of  view,  can  we  easily  overrate  its  interest  and  importance  ? 

"When,  after  the  long  period  of  darkness  which  followed 
upon  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Fine  Arts  began 
to  revive,  the  first,  and  for  several  ages  the  only,  impress  they 
received  was  that  of  the  religious  spirit  of  the  time.  Painting, 
Sculpture,  Music,  and  Architecture,  as  they  emerged  one  after 
another  from  the  "formless  void,"  were  pressed  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  that  in 
adroitly  adapting  the  reviving  Arts  to  her  purposes,  in  that 
magnificent  spirit  of  calculation  Avhich  at  all  times  character- 
ized her,  the  Church  from  the  beginning  selected  the  subjects, 
or  dictated  the  use  that  was  to  be  made  of  them.  We  find, 
on  the  contrary,  edicts  and  councils  repressing  the  popular 
extravagances  in  this  respect,  and  denouncing  those  apocryphal 
versions  of  sacred  events  and  traditions  which  had  become 
the  delight  of  the  people.  But  vain  were  councils  and  edicts; 
the  tide  was  too  strong  to  be  so  checked.  The  Church  found 
herself  obliged  to  accept  and  mould  to  her  own  objects  the 
exotic  elements  she  could  not  eradicate.  She  absorbed,  so  to 
speak,  the  evils  and  errors  she  could  not  expel.  There  seems 
to  have  been  at  this  time  a  sort  of  compromise  between  the 
popular  legends,  with  all  their  wild  mixture  of  northern  and 
classical  superstitions,  and  the  Church  legends  properly  so 
called.  The  first  great  object  to  which  reviving  Art  was  des- 
tined was  to  render  the  Christian  places  of  worship  a  theatre 
of  instruction  and  improvement  for  the  people,  to  attract  and 
to  interest  them  by  representations  of  scenes,  events,  and 
personages  already  so  familiar  as  to  require  no  explanation, 
appealing  at  once  to  their  intelligence  and  their  sympathies  ; 
embodying  in  beautiful  shapes  (beautiful  at  least  in  their  eyes) 


6  SACRED   AND   LEGENDARY   ART 

associations  and  feelings  and  memories  deep-rooted  in  their 
very  hearts,  and  which  had  influenced,  in  no  slight  degree,  the 
progress  of  civilization,  the  development  of  mind.  Upon 
these  creations  of  ancient  Art  we  cannot  look  as  those  did  for 
whom  they  were  created  ;  we  cannot  annihilate  the  centuries 
which  lie  between  us  and  them  ;  we  cannot,  in  simplicity  of 
heart,  forget  the  artist  in  the  image  he  has  placed  before  us, 
nor  supply  what  may  be  deficient  in  his  work,  through  a  rev- 
erentially excited  fancy.  We  are  critical,  not  credulous.  We 
no  longer  accept  this  polytheistic  form  of  Christianity ;  and  there 
is  little  danger,  I  suppose,  of  our  falling  again  into  the  strange 
excesses  of  superstition  to  which  it  led.  But  if  we  have  not 
much  sympathy  with  modern  imitations  of  Mediaeval  Art,  still 
less  should  AVC  sympathize  with  that  narrow  puritanical  jeal- 
ousy which  holds  the  monuments  of  a  real  and  earnest  faith  in 
contempt.  All  that  God  has  permitted  once  to  exist  in  the 
past  should  be  considered  as  the  possession  of  the  present; 
sacred  for  example  or  warning,  and  held  as  the  foundation  on 
which  to  build  up  what  is  better  and  purer.  It  should  seem 
an  established  fact  that  all  revolutions  in  religion,  in  govern- 
ment, and  in  art,  which  begin  in  the  spirit  of  scorn,  and  in  a 
sweeping  destruction  of  the  antecedent  condition,  only  tend  to 
a  reaction.  Our  puritanical  ancestors  chopped  off  the  heads  of 
Madonnas  and  Saints,  and  paid  vagabonds  to  smash  the  storied 
windows  of  our  cathedrals ;  —  notv,  are  these  rejected  and  out- 
raged shapes  of  beauty  coming  back  to  xis,  or  are  we  not  rather 
going  back  to  them  ?  As  a  Protestant,  I  might  fear  lest  in 
doing  so  we  confound  the  eternal  spirit  of  Christianity  with 
the  mutable  forms  in  which  it  has  deigned  to  speak  to  the 
hearts  of  men,  forms  which  must  of  necessity  vary  with  the 
degree  of  social  civilization,  and  bear  the  impress  of  the  feel- 
ings and  fashions  of  the  age  which  produce  them ;  but  I  must 
also  feel  that  we  ought  to  comprehend,  and  to  hold  in  due  rev- 
erence, that  which  has  once  been  consecrated  to  holiest  aims, 
which  has  shown  us  what  a  magnificent  use  has  been  made  of 
Art,  and  how  it  may  still  be  adapted  to  good  and  glorious 
purposes,  if,  while  we  respect  these  time-consecrated  images 
and  types,  we  do  not  allow  them  to  fetter  us,  but  trust  in  the 
progressive  spirit  of  Christianity  to  furnish  us  with  new  im- 
personations of  the  good  —  new  combinations  of  the  beautiful. 
I  hate  the  destructive  as  I  revere  the  progressive  spirit.  We 


INTRODUCTION  7 

must  laugh  if  any  one  were  to  try  and  persuade  us  that  the 
sun  was  guided  along  his  hlazirig  path  by  "  a  fair-haired  god 
who  touched  a  golden  lyre  ;  "  but  shall  we  therefore  cease  to 
adore  in  the  Apollo  Belvedere  the  majestic  symbol  of  light, 
the  most  divine  impersonation  of  intellectual  power  and 
beauty  ?  So  of  the  corresponding  Christian  symbols :  may 
that  time  never  come,  when  we  shall  look  up  to  the  effigy  of 
the  winged  and  radiant  angel  trampling  down  the  brute-fiend, 
without  a  glow  of  faith  in  the  perpetual  supremacy  and  final 
triumph  of  good  over  evil ! 

It  is  about  a  hundred  years  since  the  passion,  or  the  fashion, 
for  collecting  works  of  Art  began  to  be  generally  diffused 
among  the  rich  and  the  noble  of  this  land ;  and  it  is  amusing 
to  look  back  and  to  consider  the  perversions  and  affectations  of 
the  would-be  connoisseurship  during  this  period  ;  —  the  very 
small  stock  of  ideas  on  which  people  set  up  a  pretension  to 
taste  —  the  false  notions,  the  mixture  of  pedantry  and  igno- 
rance which  everywhere  prevailed.  The  publication  of  Rich- 
ardson's book  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  Discourses  had 
this  advantage,  —  that  they,  to  a  certain  degree,  diffused  a 
more  elevated  idea  of  Art  as  Art,  and  that  they  placed  con- 
noisseurship on  a  better  and  truer  basis.  In  those  days  we 
had  Inquiries  into  the  Principles  of  Taste,  Treatises  on  the 
Sublime  and  Beautiful,  Anecdotes  of  Painting ;  and  we 
abounded  in  Antiquarian  Essays  on  disputed  Pictures  and 
mutilated  Statues ;  but  then,  and  up  to  a  late  period,  any  in- 
quiry into  the  true  spirit  and  significance  of  works  of  Art,  as 
connected  with  the  history  of  Religion  and  Civilization,  would 
have  appeared  ridiculous  —  or  perhaps  dangerous  ;  we  should 
have  had  another  cry  of  "No  Popery,"  and  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment forbidding  the  importation  of  Saints  and  Madonnas.  It 
was  fortunate,  perhaps,  that  connoisseurs  meddled  not  with 
such  high  matters.  They  talked  volubly  and  harmlessly  of 
"  hands,"  and  "  masters,"  and  "  schools,"  -  —  of  "  draperies,"  of 
"tints,"  of  "  handling,"  -—  of  "fine  heads,"  "fine  composi- 
tions ;  "  of  the  "  grace  of  Raphael,"  and  of  the  "  Correggi- 
osity  of  Correggio."  The  very  manner  in  which  the  names 
of  the  painters  were  pedantically  used  instead  of  the  name  of 
the  subject  is  indicative  of  this  factitious  feeling ;  the  only 
question  at  issue  was,  whether  such  a  picture  was  a  genuine 


8  SACRED   AND  LEGENDARY   ART 

"  Raphael  "  ?  such  another  a  genuine  "  Titian  "  ?  The  spirit 
of  the  work  —  whether  that  Avas  genuine ;  how  far  it  was  in- 
fluenced by  the  faith  and  the  condition  of  the  age  which  pro- 
duced it ;  whether  the  conception  was  properly  characteristic, 
and  of  what  it  was  characteristic  —  of  the  subject  ?  or  of  the 
school  ?  or  of  the  time  ?  —  whether  the  treatment  corre- 
sponded to  the  idea  within  our  own  souls,  or  was  modified  by 
the  individuality  of  the  artist,  or  by  received  conventional- 
isms of  all  kinds  ?  —  these  were  questions  which  had  not  then 
occurred  to  any  one ;  and  I  am  not  sure  that  we  are  much  wiser 
even  now ;  yet,  setting  aside  all  higher  considerations,  how 
can  we  do  common  justice  to  the  artist,  unless  we  can  bring 
his  work  to  the  test  of  truth  ?  and  how  can  we  do  this,  unless 
we  know  what  to  look  for,  what  was  intended  as  to  incident, 
expression,  character  ?  One  result  of  our  ignorance  has  been 
the  admiration  wasted  on  the  flimsy  mannerists  of  the  later 
ages  of  Art ;  men  who  apparently  had  no  definite  intention 
in  anything  they  did,  except  a  dashing  outline,  or  a  delicate 
finish,  or  a  striking  and  attractive  management  of  color. 

It  is  curious,  this  general  ignorance  with  regard  to  the  sub- 
jects of  Mediaeval  Art,  more  particularly  now  that  it  has  be- 
come a  reigning  fashion  among  us.  We  find  no  such  ignorance 
with  regard  to  the  subjects  of  Classical  Art,  because  the  asso- 
ciations connected  with  them  form  a  part  of  every  liberal 
education.  Do  we  hear  any  one  say,  in  looking  at  Annibal 
Caracci's  pictures  in  the  National  Gallery,  "  Which  is  Silenus, 
and  which  is  Apollo  ?  "  Who  ever  confounds  a  Venus  with  a 
Minerva,  or  a  Vestal  with  an  Amazon  ;  or  would  endure  an 
undraped  Juno,  or  a  beardless  Jupiter  ?  Even*  the  gardener 
in  Zeluco  knew  Neptune  by  his  "  fork,"  and  Vulcan  by  his 
"  lame  leg."  We  are  indeed  so  accustomed,  in  visiting  the 
churches  and  the  galleries  abroad,  and  the  collections  at  home, 
to  the  predominance  of  sacred  subjects,  that  it  has  become  a 
mere  matter  of  course,  and  excites  no  particular  interest  and 
attention.  We  have  heard  it  all  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  the  Church  and  Churchmen  were  the  first,  and  for  a  long 
time  the  only,  patrons  of  Art.  In  every  sacred  edifice,  and  in 
every  public  or  private  collection  enriched  from  the  plunder  of 
sacred  edifices,  we  look  for  the  usual  proportion  of  melancholy 
martyrdoms  and  fictitious  miracles,  —  for  the  predominance  of 


Madonnas  and  Magdalenes,  St.  Catherines  and  St.  Jeromes  ; 
but  why  these  should  predominate,  why  certain  events  and 
characters  from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  should  be 
continually  repeated,  and  others  comparatively  neglected ; 
whence  the  predilection  for  certain  legendary  personages,  who 
seemed  to  be  multiplied  to  infinity,  and  the  rarity  of  others  ;  — 
of  this  we  know  nothing. 

We  have  learned,  perhaps,  after  running  through  half  the 
galleries  and  churches  in  Europe,  to  distinguish  a  few  of  the 
attributes  and  characteristic  figures  which  meet  us  at*  every 
turn,  yet  without  any  clear  idea  of  their  meaning,  derivation, 
or  relative  propriety.  The  palm  of  victory,  we  know,  desig- 
nates the  martyr  triumphant  in  death.  We  so  far  emulate  the 
critical  sagacity  of  the  gardener  in  Zeluco  that  we  have  learned 
to  distinguish  St.  Laurence  by  his  gridiron,  and  St.  Catherine 
by  her  wheel.  We  are  not  at  a  loss  to  recognize  the  Mag- 
dalene's "  loose  hair  and  lifted  eye,"  even  when  without  her 
skull  and  her  vase  of  ointment.  We  learn  to  know  St.  Francis 
by  his  brown  habit  and  shaven  crown  and  wasted  ardent  fea- 
tures :  but  how  do  we  distinguish  him  from  St.  Anthony  or  St. 
Dominick  ?  As  for  St.  George  and  the  Dragon  —  from  the 
St.  George  of  the  Louvre,  —  Raphael's,  —  who  sits  his  horse 
with  the  elegant  tranquillity  of  one  assured  of  celestial  aid, 
down  to  him  "  who  swings  on  a  sign-post  at  mine  hostess's 
door,"  —  he  is  our  familiar  acquaintance.  But  who  is  that 
lovely  being  in  the  first  blush  of  youth,  who,  bearing  aloft  the 
symbolic  cross,  stands  with  one  foot  on  the  vanquished  dragon  ? 
"  That  is  a  copy  after  Raphael."  And  who  is  that  majestic 
creature  holding  her  palm  branch,  while  the  unicorn  crouches 
at  her  feet  ?  "  That  is  the  famous  Moretto  at  Vienna."  Are 
we  satisfied  ?  —  not  in  the  least !  but  we  try  to  look  wiser, 
and  pass  on. 

In  the  old  times  the  painters  of  these  legendary  scenes  and 
subjects  could  always  reckon  securely  on  certain  associations 
and  certain  sympathies  in  the  minds  of  the  spectators.  We 
have  outgrown  these  associations,  we  repudiate  these  sympa- 
thies. We  have  taken  these  works  from  their  consecrated 
localities,  in  which  they  once  held  each  their  dedicated  place, 
and  we  have  hung  them  in  our  drawing-rooms  and  our  dress- 
ing-rooms, over  our  pianos  and  our  sideboards  —  and  now 


* 
10  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

what  do  they  say  to  us  ?     That  Magdalene,  weeping  amid  her 
hair,  who  once  spoke  comfort  to  the  soul  of  the  fallen  sinner, 

—  that  Sebastian,  arrow-pierced,  whose  upward  ardent  glance 
spoke  of  courage  and  hope  to  the  tyrant-ridden  serf,  —  that 
poor  tortured  slave,  to  whose  aid  St.  Mark  comes  sweeping 
down  from,  above,  —  can  they  speak  to  us  of  nothing  save  flow- 
ing lines  and  correct  drawing  and  gorgeous  color  ?     Must  we 
be  told  that  one  is  a  Titian,  the  other  a  Guido,  the  third  a 
Tintoret,  before  we  dare  to  melt  in  compassion  or  admiration  ? 

—  or  the  moment  we  refer  to  their  ancient  religious  significa- 
tion and  influence,  must  it   be  with  disdain  or  with  pity  ? 
This,  as  it  appears  to  me,  is  to  take  not  a  rational,  but  rather 
a  most  irrational  as  well  as   a  most  irreverent,  view  of  the 
question  ;  it  is  to  confine  the  pleasure  and  improvement  to  be 
derived  from  works  of  Art  within  very  narrow  bounds ;  it  is 
to  seal  up  a  fountain  of  the  richest  poetry,  and  to  shut  out  a 
thousand  ennobling  and  inspiring  thoughts.     Happily  there  is 
a  growing  appreciation  of  these  larger  principles  of  criticism 
as  applied  to  the  study  of  Art.     People  look  at  the  pictures 
which   hang  round  their  walls,  and  have  an  awakening  sus- 
picion that  there  is  more  in  them  than  meets  the  eye  —  more 
than  mere  connoisseurship  can  interpret ;  and  that  they  have 
another,  a  deeper  significance  than  has  been   dreamed  of  by 
picture  dealers  and  picture  collectors,  or  even  picture  critics. 

II.    OF  THE   DISTINCTION  TO   BE  DRAWN   BETWEEN   THE 
DEVOTIONAL  AND  THE  HISTORICAL  SUBJECTS 

At  first,  when  entering  on  a  subject  so  boundless  and  so 
diversified,  we  are  at  a  loss  for  some  leading  classification  which 
shall  be  distinct  and  intelligible,  without  being  mechanical. 
It  appears  to  me  that  all  sacred  representations,  in  as  far  as 
they  appeal  to  sentiment  and  imagination,  resolve  themselves 
into  two  great  classes,  which  I  shall  call  the  DEVOTIONAL  and 
the  HISTORICAL. 

Devotional  pictures  are  those  which  portray  the  objects  of 
our  veneration  with  reference  only  to  their  sacred  character, 
whether  standing  singly  or  in  company  with  others.  They 
place  before  us  no  action  or  event,  real  or  supposed.  They  are 
neither  portrait  nor  history.  A  group  of  sacred  personages 
Avhere  no  action  is  represented  is  called  in  Italian  a  "  sacra 


INTKODUCTION  11 

conversazione  ;  "  —  the  word  conversazione,  which  signifies  a 
society  in  which  there  is  communion,  being  here,  as  it  appears 
to  me,  used  with  peculiar  propriety.  All  subjects,  then,  which 
exhibit  to  us  sacred  personages,  alone  or  in  groups,  simply  in 
the  character  of  superior  beings,  must  be  considered  as  devo- 
tionally  treated. 

But  a  sacred  subject,  without  losing  wholly  its  religious  im- 
port, becomes  historical  the  moment  it  represents  any  story, 
incident,  or  action,  real  or  imagined.  All  pictures  which  ex- 
hibit the  events  of  Scripture  story ;  all  those  which  express 
the  actions,  miracles,  and  martyrdoms  of  saints,  come  under 
this  class ;  and  to  this  distinction  I  must  call  the  attention  of 
the  reader,  requesting  that  it  may  be  borne  in  mind  through- 
out this  work. 

We  must  also  recollect  that  a  story,  action,  or  fact  may  be 
so  represented  as  to  become  a  symbol  expressive  of  an  abstract 
idea  ;  and  some  Scriptural  and  some  legendary  subjects  may 
be  devotional,  or  historical,  according  to  the  sentiment  con- 
veyed :  for  example,  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Last  Supper  may 
be  so  represented  as  either  to  exhibit  an  event,  or  to  express 
a  symbol  of  our  Redemption.  The  Raising  of  Lazarus  ex- 
hibits in  the  Catacombs  a  mystical  emblem  of  the  general  resur- 
rection ;  in  the  grand  picture  by  Sebastian  del  Piombo,  in  our 
National  Gallery,  it  is  a  scene  from  the  life  of  our  Saviour. 
Among  the  legendary  subjects,  the  Penance  of  the  Magdalene 
and  St.  Martin  Dividing  his  Cloak  may  be  merely  incidents, 
or  they  may  be  symbolical,  the  first  of  penitence,  the  latter  of 
charity,  in  the  general  sense.  And,  again,  there  are  some  sub- 
jects which,  though  expressing  a  scene  or  an  action,  are  wholly 
mystical  and  devotional  in  their  import ;  as  the  Vision  of  St. 
Augustine  and  the  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine. 

Among  the  grandest  of  the  devotional  subjects  Ave  may 
reckon  those  compositions  which  represent  the  whole  celestial 
hierarchy ;  the  divine  personages  of  the  Trinity,  the  angels 
and  archangels,  and  the  beatified  spirits  of  the  just.  Such  is 
the  subject  called  the  "  Paradise,"  so  often  met  with  in  pic- 
tures and  ecclesiastical  decoration,  where  Christ  is  enthroned 
in  glory ;  such  is  also  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  that 
ancient  and  popular  symbol  of  the  triumph  of  Religion  or  the 
Church  ;  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb ;  and  the  Last  Judg- 


12  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

merit,  from  the  Apocalypse.  The  order  of  precedence  in  these 
sacred  assemblages  was  early  settled  by  ecclesiastical  authority, 
and  was  almost  as  absolute  as  that  of  a  modern  code  of  honor. 
First  after  the  Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  as  Regina  Angelorum, 
and  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  then,  in  order,  the  Evangelists ; 
the  Patriarchs  ;  the  Prophets  ;  the  Apostles  ;  the  Fathers  ;  the 
Bishops ;  the  Martyrs  ;  the  Hermits  ;  the  Virgins ;  the  Monks, 
Nuns,  and  Confessors. 

As  examples,  I  may  cite  the  Paradise  of  Angelico,  in  the 
Florence  Academy  ;  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  Hans 
Hemling,  in  the  Wallerstein  collection,  which  contains  not  less 
than  fifty-two  figures,  all  individualized  with  their  proper 
attributes ;  and  which,  if  it  were  possible,  should  be  considered 
in  contrast  with  the  Coronation  by  Angelico.  The  Flemish 
painter  seems  to  have  carried  his  intense  impression  of  earthly 
and  individual  life  into  the  regions  of  heaven  ;  the  Italian, 
through  a'  purer  inspiration,  seems  to  have  brought  all  Para- 
dise down  before  us  upon  earth.  In  the  Adoration  of  the 
Lamb  by  [the  brothers]  Van  Eyclc  [the  Ghent  altar-piece], 
there  are  not  fewer  than  two  hundred  figures.  For  the  Last 
Judgment,  the  grand  compositions  of  Orcagna  *  in  the  Campo 
Santo  [Pisa], — of  Luca  Signorelli  and  Angelico  at  Orvieto, 
—  and  the  fresco  of  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  may 
be  consulted. 

Where  the  usual  order  is  varied,  there  is  generally  some 
reason  for  it ;  for  instance,  in  the  exaltation  of  a  favorite  saint, 
as  we  sometimes  find  St.  Dominick  and  St.  Francis  by  the  side 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ;  and  among  the  miniatures  of  that 
extraordinary  MS.,  the  Hortus  Deliciarum,  now  at  Strasbourg, 
painted  for  a  virgin  abbess,  there  is  a  "  Paradiso,"  in  which 
the  painter,  either  by  her  command  or  in  compliment  to  her, 
has  placed  the  virgins  immediately  after  the  angels. 

The  representation  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  saints 
grouped  around  them  is  a  devotional  subject  familiar  to  us 
from  its  constant  recurrence.  It  also  frequently  happens  that 
the  tutelary  saint  of  the  locality,  or  the  patron  saint  of  the 
votary,  is  represented  as  seated  on  a  raised  throne  in  the  centre  ; 

1  [Orcagna  on  the  authority  of  Vasari  has  long  been  called  the  author  of 
these  frescoes;  but  there  are  grounds  for  believing  that  they  are  the  work  of 
Nardo  Daddi.  Vide  J-nyard's  Revision  of  Kugler's  Handbook,  vol.  i-  p.  111.] 


INTRODUCTION  13 

and  other  saints,  though  under  every  other  circumstance  taking 
a  superior  rank,  become  here  accessaries,  and  are  placed  on 
each  side  or  lower  down  in  the  picture :  for  example,  where 
St.  Augustine  is  enthroned,  and  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  stand 
on  each  side,  as  in  picture  by  B.  Vivarini  (Venice ;  SS. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo),  or  where  St.  Barbara  is  enthroned,  and 
Mary  Magdalene  and  St.  Catherine  stand  on  each  side,  as  in  a 
picture  by  Matteo  di  Siena  (San  Dominico,  Siena). 

In  such  pictures,  the  votary  or  donor  is  often  introduced 
kneeling  at  the  feet  of  his  patron,  either  alone  or  accompanied 
by  his  wife  and  other  members  of  his  family  :  and  to  express 
the  excess  of  his  humility,  he  is  sometimes  so  diminutive  in 
proportion  to  the  colossal  object  of  his  veneration  as  to  be 
almost  lost  to  sight ;  we  have  frequent  examples  of  this 
naivete  of  sentiment  in  the  old  mosaics  and  votive  altar-pieces  ; 
for  instance,  in  a  beautiful  old  fresco  at  Assisi,  where  the 
Magdalene,  a  majestic  figure  about  six  feet  high,  holds  out  her 
hand  in  benediction  to  a  little  Franciscan  friar  about  a  foot  in 
height :  but  it  was  abandoned  as  barbarous  in  the  later  schools 
of  Art,  and  the  votary,  when  retained,  appears  of  the  natural 
size  ;  as  in  the  Madonna  del  Donatore 1  of  Raphael  (Vatican, 
Home),  where  Sigismond  Conti  is  almost  the  finest  and  most 
striking  part  of  that  inestimable  picture  ;  and  in  the  Madonna 
of  the  Meyer  family  by  Holbein  (Dresden  Gallery). 

When  a  bishop  is  introduced  into  a  group  of  saints  kneel- 
ing, while  all  the  others  are  standing,  he  may  be  supposed  to 
be  the  Donatore  or  Dlvoto,  the  person  who  presents  the  pic- 
ture. When  he  is  standing,  he  is  one  of  the  bishop-patrons 
or  bishop-martyrs,  of  whom  there  are  some  hundreds,  and  who 
are  more  difficult  to  discriminate  than  any  other  pictured 
saints. 

And  this  leads  me  to  the  subject  of  the  so-called  anachro- 
nisms in  devotional  subjects,  where  personages  who  lived  at 
different  and  distant  periods  of  time  are  found  grouped  to- 
gether. It  is  curious  to  find  the  critics  of  the  last  century 
treating  with  pity  and  ridicule,  as  the  result  of  ignorance  or  a 
barbarous  unformed  taste,  the  noblest  and  most  spiritual  concep- 
tions of  poetic  Art.  Even  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  had  so  little  idea 
of  the  true  object  and  feeling  of  such  representations,  that  he 
1  [Better  known  as  the  Madonna  di  Foligno.] 


14  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

thinks  it  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  error  of  the  painter,  01 
the  mistaken  piety  of  his  employer.  We  must  remember  that 
the  personages  here  brought  together  in  their  sacred  character 
belong  no  more  to  our  earth,  but  to  heaven  and  eternity  :  for 
them  there  is  no  longer  time  or  place  ;  they  are  here  assembled 
together  in  the  perpetual  "  communion  of  saints,"  —  immortal 
contemporaries  in  that  kingdom  where  the  Angel  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse proclaimed  "  that  there  should  be  time  no  longer." 

Such  groups  are  sometimes  arranged  with  an  artless  solem- 
nity, all  the  personages  standing  and  looking  straight  out  of 
the  picture  at  the  worshipper.  Sometimes  there  is  a  touch  of 
dramatic  sentiment,  which,  without  interfering  with  the  solemn 
devotional  feeling,  lights  up  the  whole  with  the  charm  of  a 
purpose  ;  as  in  the  Correggio  at  Parma  [Gallery],  where  St. 
Jerome  presents  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  to  the  infant 
Christ,  while  an  angel  turns  the  leaves,  and  Mary  Magdalene, 
symbol  of  redemption  and  reconciliation,  bends  to  kiss  the  feet 
of  the  Saviour. 

Our  ancestors  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  not  particular  in 
drawing  that  strong  line  of  demarcation  between  the  classical, 
Jewish,  and  Christian  periods  of  history,  that  we  do.  They 
saw  only  Christendom  everywhere  ;  they  regarded  the  past 
only  in  relation  to  Christianity.  Hence  we  find  in  the  early 
ecclesiastical  monuments  and  edifices  such  a  strange  assemblage 
of  Pagan,  Scriptural,  and  Christian  worthies  ;  as,  Hector  of 
Troy,  Alexander  the  Great,  King  David,  Judas  Maccabeus, 
King  Arthur,  St.  George,  Godfrey  of  Boulogne,  Lucretia,  Vir- 
ginia, Judith,  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  Bridget  (as  in  the  Cross  of 
Nuremberg).  In  the  curious  Manual  of  Greek  Art  published 
by  Didron,  we  find  the  Greek  philosophers  and  poets  entering 
into  a  scheme  of  ecclesiastical  decoration,  as  in  the  carved  stalls 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Ulm,  where  Solon,  Apollonius,  Plutarch, 
Plato,  Sophocles  are  represented,  holding  each  a  scroll,  on 
which  is  inscribed  a  passage  from  their  works,  interpreted  into 
an  allusion  to  the  coming  of  Christ :  and  I  have  seen  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Nativity  in  which  the  sibyls  are  dancing  hand-in- 
hand  around  the  cradle  of  the  new-born  Saviour.  This  may 
appear  profane  to  some,  but  the  comprehension  of  the  whole 
universe  within  the  pale  of  Christianity  strikes  me  as  being  in 
the  most  Catholic,  as  well  as  in  the  most  poetical,  spirit. 


INTRODUCTION  15 

It  is  in  devotional  subjects  that  we  commonly  find  those 
anthropomorphic  representations  of  the  Divinity  which  shock 
devout  people  ;  and  which  no  excuse  or  argument  can  render 
endurable  to  those  who  see  in  them  only  ignorant  irreverence 
or  intentional  profaneness.  It  might  be  pleaded  that  the  pro- 
faneness  is  not  intentional ;  that  emblems  and  forms  are,  in 
the  imitative  arts,  what  figures  of  speech  are  in  language  ;  that 
only  through  a  figure  of  speech  can  any  attempt  be  made  to 
place  the  idea  of  Almighty  power  before  us.  Familiar  expres- 
sions, consecrated  by  Scripture  usage,  represent  the  Deity  3s 
reposing,  Avaking,  stretching  forth  His  hand,  sitting  on  a  throne  ; 
as  pleased,  angry,  vengeful,  repentant ;  and  the  ancient  paint- 
ers, speaking  the  language  proper  to  their  art,  appear  to  have 
turned  these  emblematical  words  into  emblematical  pictures. 
I  forbear  to  say  more  on  this  point,  because  I  have  taken 
throughout  the  poetical  and  not  the  religious  view  of  Art,  and 
this  is  an  objection  which  must  be  left,  as  a  matter  of  feeling, 
to  the  amount  of  candor  and  knowledge  in  the  critical  reader. 

Ht- 

In  the  sacred  subjects  properly  called  HISTORICAL,  we  must 
be  careful  to  distinguish  between  those  which  are  Scriptural, 
representing  scenes  from  the  Old  or  New  Testament,  and  those 
which  are  Legendary. 

Of  the  first,  for  the  present,  I  do  not  speak,  as  they  will  be 
fully  treated  hereafter. 

The  historical  subjects  from  the  lives  of  the  saints  consist 
principally  of  Miracles  and  Martyrdoms. 

In  the  first,  it  is  worth  remarking  that  we  have  no  pictured 
miracle  which  is  not  imitated  from  the  Old  or  the  New  Tes- 
tament (unless  it  be  an  obvious  emblem,  as  where  the  saint 
carries  his  own  head).  There  is  no  act  of  supernatural  power 
related  of  any  saint  which  is  not  recorded  of  some  great  Scrip- 
tural personage.  The  object  was  to  represent  the  favorite  patron 
as  a  copy  of  the  great  universal  type  of  beneficence,  CHRIST 
OUR  REDEEMER.  And  they  were  not  satisfied  that  the  re- 
semblance should  lie  in  character  only  ;  but  should  emulate 
the  power  of  Christ  in  his  visible  actions.  We  must  remem- 
ber that  the  common  people  of  the  Middle  Ages  did  not,  and 
could  not,  distinguish  between  miracles  accredited  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Scripture  and  those  which  were  fabrications,  or  at  least 
exaggerations.  All  miracles  related  as  divine  interpositions 


16  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

were  to  them  equally  possible,  equally  credible.  If  a  more 
extended  knowledge  of  the  natural  laws  renders  us  in  these 
days  less  credulous,  it  also  shows  us  that  many  things  were 
possible,  under  particular  conditions,  which  were  long  deemed 
supernatural. 

We  find  in  the  legendary  pictures,  that  the  birth  of  several 
saints  is  announced  by  an  angel,  or  in  a  dream,  as  in  the  stories 
of  St.  Catherine,  St.  Roch,  etc.  They  exhibit  precocious  piety 
and  wisdom,  as  in  the  story  of  St.  Nicholas,  who  also  calms  a 
tempest,  and  guides  the  storm-tossed  vessel  safe  to  land.  They 
walk  on  the  water,  as  in  the  stories  of  St.  Raymond  and  St. 
Hyacinth ;  or  a  river  divides,  to  let  them  pass,  as  in  the  story 
of  St.  Alban.  Saints  are  fed  and  comforted  miraculously,  or 
delivered  from  prison  by  angels  ;  or  resist  fire,  like  the  "  Three 
Children."  The  multiplication  of  bread  and  the  transforma- 
tion of  water  into  wine  are  standing  miracles.  But  those 
which  most  frequently  occur  in  pictures  are  the  healing  of  the 
sick,  the  lame,  the  blind  ;  the  casting  out  of  demons,  the  res- 
toration of  the  dead,  or  some  other  manifestation  of  compas- 
sionate and  beneficent  power. 

Some  of  the  pictured  legends  are  partly  Scriptural,  partly 
historical,  as  the  story  of  St.  Peter  ;  others  are  clearly  religious 
apologues  founded  on  fact  or  tradition,  as  those  of  St.  Mary  of 
Egypt  and  St.  Christopher ;  others  are  obviously  and  purely 
allegorical,  as  the  Greek  story  of  St.  Sophia  (i.  e.  Heavenly 
Wisdom,  2CX&IA)  and  her  celestial  progeny,  St.  Faith,  St. 
Hope,  and  St.  Charity,  all  martyred  by  the  blind  and  cruel 
Pagans.  The  names  sound  as  if  borrowed  from  the  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress ; "  and  it  is  curious  to  find  Banyan's  allegorical 
legend,  the  favorite  picture-book  of  the  people,  appearing  just 
at  the  time  when  the  legends  and  pictures  of  the  saints  became 
objects  of  puritanical  horror,  and  supplying  their  place  in  the 
popular  imagination. 

Martyrdoms  are  only  too  common  :  they  present  to  us  Chris- 
tianity under  its  most  mystical  aspect  —  the  deification  of  suf- 
fering ;  but  to  render  these  representations  effective,  they  should 
be  pathetic  without  being  terrible,  they  should  speak  to  us 

Of  melancholy  fear  subdued  by  faith, 
Of  blessed  consolations  in  distress; 

but  not  of  the  horrid  cruelty  of  man  towards  man.     It  lias 


INTRODUCTION  17 

been  well  remarked  by  my  friend  M.  Rio  (to  whose  charming 
and  eloquent  exposition  of  Christian  Art  I  refer  with  ever- 
new  delight)  that  the  early  painters  of  Western  Christendom 
avoided  these  subjects,  and  that  their  prevalence  in  ecclesias- 
tical decoration  marked  the  decline  of  religious  feeling  and 
the  degeneracy  of  Art.  But  this  remark  does  not  apply  to 
Byzantine  Art ;  for  we  find  from  the  exact  description  of  a 
picture  of  the  ^piartyrdom  of  St.  Euphemia  (both  the  picture 
and  the  description -dating  from  the  third  century),  that  such 
representations  were  then  common,  and  were  appealed  to  in 
the  same  manner  as  now,  to  excite  the  feelings  of  the  people. 
The  martyrdoms  generally  met  with  are  those  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  St.  Stephen  Protomartyr,  St.  Laurence,  St. 
Catherine,  and  St.  Sebastian.  These  we  find  everywhere,  in 
all  countries  and  localities.  Where  the  patron  of  the  church 
or  chapel  is  a  martyr,  his  martyrdom  holds  a  conspicuous 
place,  often  over  the  high  altar,  and  accompanied  by  all  the 
moving  circumstances  which  can  excite  the  pity,  or  horror,  or 
enthusiasm  of  the  pious  votaries ;  but  in  the  best  examples 
we  find  the  saint  preparing  for  his  death,  not  suffering  the 
torments  actually  inflicted  ;  so  that  the  mind  is  elevated  by 
the  sentiment  of  his  courage,  not  disturbed  and  disgusted  by 
the  spectacle  of  his  agonies. 

III.    OF  CERTAIN  PATRON  SAINTS 

WHO  ARE  COMMONLY  GROUPED  TOGETHER  IX  WORKS  OF  ART, 
OR  WHO  BELONG  TO  PARTICULAR  COUNTRIES,  CITIES,  OR  LO- 
CALITIES 

While  such  assemblages  of  holy  persons  as  are  found 
grouped  together  in  devotional  pictures  are  to  be  considered 
as  quite  independent  of  chronology,  we  shall  find  that  the 
selection  has  been  neither  capricious  nor  arbitrary,  and,  with  a 
little  consideration,  we  shall  discover  the  leading  idea  in  the 
mind  of  the  artist  —  that,  at  least,  which  was  intended-  to  be 
conveyed  to  the  mind  of  the  spectator,  and  which  was  much 
more  intelligible  in  former  times  than  it  is  now. 

Sometimes  we  find  certain  saints  placed  in  companionship, 
because  they  are  the  joint  patrons  and  protectors  of  the  city 
or  locality  for  which  the  picture  was  painted.  Thus  in  the 
Bologna  pictures  we  constantly  find  the  bishop  St.  Petronius, 


18  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

St.  Eloy,  St.  Dominick,  and  the  warrior  St.  Proculus ;  while 
in  the  Venetian  pictures  we  have  perpetual  St.  Marks,  St. 
Georges,  and  St.  Catherines. 

Or,  secondly,  they  are  connected  by  kindred  powers  and 
attributes.  Thus  we  find  St.  Sebastian,  the  patron  against 
pestilence,  in  company  with  St.  Rqch,  who  ministered  to  the 
sick  of  the  plague.  Thus  St:  Catherine  and  St.  Jerome,  the 
two  patrons  of  school  theology,  are  often  fotyjid  in  compan- 
ionship. Where  St.  Catherine  and  St.  •  Barbara  are  found 
together,  the  first  figures  as  patroness  of  the  ecclesiastical,  and 
the  second  of  the  military,  power  —  or  they  represent  respec- 
tively the  contemplative  and  the  active  life. 

Or,  thirdly,  they  are  combined  in  the  fancy  by  some  inevi- 
table association  ;  as  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Stephen  are  often 
in  the  same  picture,  because  St.  Augustine  dedicated  some  of 
his  most  eloquent  works  to  the  glory  of  the  martyr. 

Or  they  were  friends  on  earth,  for  which  reason  St.  Cyprian 
and  St.  Cornelius  are  placed  together. 

Or  their  relics  repose  in  the  same  spot ;  whence  St.  Stephen 
and  St.  Laurence  have  become  almost  inseparable.  When  St. 
Vincent  and  St.  Laurence  are  placed  together  (as  in  a  lovely 
•composition  of  Parmigiano,  where  they  sit  reading  out  of  the 
same  book),  it  is  because  of  the  similarity  of  their  fate,  and 
that  the  popular  tradition  supposed  them  to  be  brothers. 

A  point  of  more  general  importance,  and  capable  of  more 
definite  explanation,  is  the  predominance  of  certain  sacred 
personages  in  particular  schools  of  Art.  St.  Cosmo  and  St. 
Damian,  for  instance,  are  perpetually  recurring  in  the  Floren- 
tine pictures  as  the  patron  saints  of  the  Medici  family.  In 
the  Lombard  pictures  St.  Ambrose  is  often  found  without 
his  compeers  —  not  as  doctor  of  the  Church,  but  as  bishop 
of  Milan.  In  the  Siena  pictures,  we  may  look  for  the  nun 
St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  and  St.  Ansano,  the  apostle  of  the 
Sienese,  holding  his  banner  and  palm.  And  in  the  Augustine 
chapels  and  churches,  St.  Augustine  figures,  not  as  doctor  of 
the  Church,  but  as  patriarch  of  the  Order. 

A  bishop-martyr,  holding  his  palm,  and  not  otherwise  des- 
ignated either  by  name  or  attribute,  would  be  —  in  one  of 
Perugino's  pictures,  St.  Ercolano  or  St.  Costanzo ;  in  a  Flor- 
entine picture,  St.  Donate  or  St.  Romulo ;  if  the  picture  were 


INTRODUCTION  19 

painted  in  the  march  of  Ancona,  it  would  probably  be  St. 
Apollinaris  of  Ravenna  ;  at  Naples  it  would  be  a  St.  Janua- 
rius  ;  at  Paris,  or  in  a  picture  painted  for  a  French  church,  of 
which  there  are  many  in  Italy,  it  would  be  St.  Denis ;  and 
in  German  prints,  St.  Boniface  or  St.  Lambert.  I  need  not 
further  multiply  examples. 

If  the  locality  from  which'  the  picture  came  will  sometimes 
determine  the  names  of  the  personages,  so  the  personages  rep- 
resented will  often  explain  the  purpose  and  intended  situation 
of  the  picture.  There  is  in  Lord  Ashburton's  gallery  a  noble 
group  representing  together  St.  Peter,  St.  Leonard,  St.  Martha, 
and  Mary  Magdalene.  Such  a  combination  points  it  out  at 
once  as  intended  for  a  charitable  institution,  and,  on  inquiry, 
we  find  that  it  was  painted  for  the  chapel  of  a  brotherhood 
associated  to  redeem  prisoners,  to  ransom  slaves,  to  work  for 
the  poor,  and  to  convert  the  sinner  to  repentance.  Many  such 
interesting  and  instructive  analogies  will  be  pointed  out  in  the 
course  of  the  following  pages,  and  the  observer  of  works  of 
Art  will  discover  others  for  himself. 

I  add  here,  in  alphabetical  order,  those  countries  and  locali- 
ties of  which  the  patron  saints  are  distinguished  in  works  of 
Art.1 

ANCOXA  :  St.  Cyriacus,  Bishop  ;  and  his  mother  Anna,  Martyr. 

AREZZO  :  St.  Donato,  Bishop. 

ASTI,  NOVARA.  and  all  through  the  cities  of  PIEDMONT  and  the 
north  of  Italy,  we  find  the  Warrior,  St.  Maurice,  and  his  com- 
panions St.  Secuuclus,  St.  Alexander,  and  the  other  Martyrs  of  the 
Theban  Legion. 

AUGSBURG  :  St.  Ulrich,  Bishop ;  St.  Afra,  Martyr. 

AUSTRIA  :  St.  Leopold,  St.  Stephen,  St.  Maximilian,  St.  Colo- 
man. 

BAMBERG  :  St.  Henry  and  St.  Cunegimda,  Emperor  and  Em- 
press. 

BARCELONA  :  St.  Eulalia,  Martyr.     (In  Spanish  pictures  onl}'.) 

BAVARIA  :  St.  George,  Martyr. 

BERGAMO  :  St.  Alexander,  Warrior ;  St.  Grata,  Widow. 

BOHEMIA  :  St.  John  Nepomuck,  Priest ;  St.  "VTenceslaus,  King ; 
St.  Ludmilla,  Queen;  St.  Vitus,  young  Martyr;  St.  Procopius, 
Hermit. 

1  The  Saints  who  do  not  appear  in  these  volumes  will  be  found  in  the  Zo 
gendsofthe  Monastic  Orders. 


20  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

BOLOGNA  :  St.  Petronius,  Bishop ;  St.  Dominick,  Friar  ;  St.  Pro- 
culus,  Warrior  Martyr ;  St.  Eloy  (Eligio),  Bishop  and  Smith. 

BRESCIA  :  St.  Faustinas  and  Jovita ;  St.  Julia,  St.  Afra,  Martyrs. 

BRUGES  :  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

BURGUNDY:  St.  Andrew,  Apostle. 

COLOGNE:  The  Three  Kings;  St.  Ursula,  Virgin  Martyr;  St. 
Gereon,  Warrior  Martyr. 

COMO  :  St.  Abbondio,  Bishop. 

CORTONA  :  St.  Margaret,  Nun  and  Penitent. 

CREMONA  :  St.  Omobuono,  Secular  Habit. 

FERRARA  :  St.  Geminiano,  Bishop  ;  St.  George,  Martyr;  St.  Bar- 
bara, Martyr. 

FIESOLE  :  St.  Romulo,  Bishop. 

FLORENCE  :  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  St.  Zenobio,  St.  Antonio, 
Bishops  ;  St.  Reparata,  Virgin  Martyr ;  St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian 
(the  Apothecary  Saints,  especial  patrons  of  the  Medici  family)  ; 
St.  Verdiana,  Nun ;  St.  Miniato,  Warrior. 

FRANCE:  St.  Michael,  Angel;  St.  Dionysius  (Denis),  Bishop; 
St.  Genevieve,  Virgin  ;  St.  Martin,  Bishop. 

GENOA  :  St.  George,  St.  Laurence,  Martyrs. 

GHENT  :  St.  Bavon,  Prince  and  Hermit. 

GRENOBLE  :  St.  Hugh  the  Carthusian. 

IRELAND:  St.  Patrick,  Bishop;  St.  Bridget,  Abbess. 

LUCCA:  St.  Martin,  Bishop;  St.  Frediano,  Priest;  St.  Zita, 
Virgin. 

LIEGE  :  St.  Hubert,  Bishop  and  Huntsman  ;  St.  Lambert,  Bishop. 

MADRID:  St.  Isidore,  Laborer;  St.  Dominick,  Friar  (Patron  of 
the  Escurial,  St.  Laurence). 

MANTUA  :  St.  Andrew  :  St.  Barbara  ;  St.  George  and  St.  Longi- 
nus,  Warrior  Saints. 

MARSEILLES  and  all  PROVENCE  :  St.  Lazarus ;  St.  Mary  Magda- 
lene ;  St.  Martha ;  St.  Marcella. 

MESSINA  :  St.  Agatha,  Martyr. 

MILAX  :  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  and  Doctor  ;  St.  Gervasius  and  St. 
Protasitis,  Martyrs;  St.  Maurice,  St.  Victor,  Warriors. 

MODENA  :  St.  Geminiano,  Bishop.  (In  pictures  of  the  Correggio 
School.) 

NAPLES  :  St.  Januarius,  Martyr. 

NOVARA  :  St.  Gaudenzio,  Bishop. 

NUREMBERG  :  St.  Laurence,  Martyr;  St.  Sebald,  Pilgrim  and 
Hermit.  (The  latter  an  important  person  in  pictures  and  prints 
of  the  Albert  DUrer  school.) 

PADUA  :  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  Friar. 

PARIS:  St.  Genevieve,  Virgin;  St.  Germain,  Bishop;  St.  Hippo- 
litus,  Martyr. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

PARMA  :  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle ;  St. 
Bernard,  Monk;  St.  Hilary  (Ilario),  Bishop. 

PERUGIA  :  St.  Ercolano  and  St.  Costanzo,  Bishops. 

PIACENZA :  St.  Justina,  Martyr;  St.  Antoninus,  Warrior  (The- 
ban  Legion). 

PIEDMONT  and  SAVOY  :  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  St.  Maurice  and 
St.  George,  Warriors:  St.  Amadeus,  King. 

PISA:  St.  Ranieri,  Hermit;  St.  Torpe,  Warrior;  St.  Ephesus  and 
St.  Potita,  Warriors.  (These  only  in  the  ancient  Pisan  school.) 

RAVENNA  :  St.  Apollinaris,  Bishop. 

RIMINI  :  St.  Julian,  Martyr.  (A  young  saint,  popular  all  through 
the  north  and  down  the  east  coast  of  Italy.) 

SEVILLE  :  St.  Leander,  Bishop ;  St.  Justina,  St.  Rufina,  Sisters 
and  Martyrs.  (These  are  only  found  in  Spanish  pictures.) 

SICILY:  St.  Vitus,  Martyr;  St.  Rosalia,  Recluse  (Palermo);  St. 
Agatha  (Messina),  St.  Lucia  (Syracuse),  Martyrs. 

SIENA:  St.  Ansano,  Martyr;  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  Nun;  St. 
Bernardino,  Friar. 

THURINGIA  and  all  that  part  of  SAXONY  :  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary;  St.  Boniface,  Bishop. 

TOLEDO  :  St.  Ildefonso,  Bishop ;  and  St.  Leocadia,  Martyr. 
(Only  in  Spanish  pictures.) 

[TouRS  :  St.  Martin,  Bishop.'] 

TREVISO:  St:  Liberale,  Warrior. 

TURIN  :  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  St.  Maurice,  Warrior. 

UMBRIA  :  All  through  this  region  and  the  eastern  coast  of 
Italy,  very  important  in  respect  to  Art,  the  favorite  saints  are :  St. 
Nicholas,  Bishop;  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  Friar;  St.  Clara,  Nun;  St. 
Julian,  Martyr ;  and  St.  Catherine,  Virgin  Martyr. 

VALENCIA  :  St.  Vincent,  Martyr. 

VENICE  :  St.  Mark,  Apostle  ;  St.  George,  St.  Theodore,  Warriors ; 
St.  Nicholas,  Bishop ;  St.  Catherine,  St.  Christina,  Virgin  Martyrs. 

VERCELLI:  St.  Eusebius,  Bishop  ;  St.  Thronestus,  Warrior  (The- 
ban  Legion). 

VERONA:  St.  Zeno,  Bishop;  St.  Fermo,  Martyr;  St.  Euphemia, 
Martyr. 

VOTIVE  PICTURES  are  those  which  have  been  dedicated  in 
certain  religious  edifices,  in  fulfilment  of  vows ;  either  as  the 
expression  of  thanksgiving  for  blessings  which  have  been 
vouchsafed,  or  propitiative  against  calamities  to  be  averted. 
The  far  greater  number  of  these  pictures  commemorate  an 
escape  from  danger,  sickness,  death  ;  and  more  especially,  some 
visitation  of  the  plague,  that  terrible  and  frequent  scourge  of 


22  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

the  Middle  Ages.  The  significance  of  such  pictures  is  gener- 
ally indicated  by  the  presence  of  St.  Sebastian  or  St.  Koch, 
the  patrons  against  the  plague ;  or  St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian, 
the  healing  and  medical  saints ;  accompanied  by  the  patron 
saints  of  the  country  or  locality,  if  it  be  a  piiblic  act  of  devo- 
tion ;  or,  if  dedicated  by  private  or  individual  piety,  the  donor 
kneels,  presented  by  his  own  patron  saint.  In  general,  though 
not  always,  this  expressive  group  is  arranged  in  attendance  on 
the  enthroned  Madonna  and  her  divine  Son,  as  the  universal 
protectors  from  all  evil.  Such  pictures  are  among  the  most 
interesting  and  remarkable  of  the  works  of  sacred  Art  which 
remain  to  us,  and  have  often  a  pathetic  and  poetical  beauty, 
and  an  historical  significance,  which  it  is  a  chief  purpose  of 
these  volumes  to  interpret  and  illustrate. 

IV.    OF  CERTAIN  EMBLEMS  AND  ATTRIBUTES 

To  know  something  of  the  attributes  and  emblems  of  gen- 
eral application,  as  well  as  those  proper  to  each  saint,  is  abso- 
lutely necessary ;  but  it  will  also  greatly  assist  the  fancy  and 
the  memory  to  understand  their  origin  and  significance.  For 
this  reason  I  will  add  a  few  words  of  explanation. 

The  GLORY,  NIMBUS,  or  AUREOLE  —  the  Christian  attri- 
bute of  sanctity,  and  used  generally  to  distinguish  all  holy 
personages  — is  of  pagan  origin.  It  expressed  the  luminous 
nebula  (Homer,  Iliad,  xxiii.  205),  supposed  to  emanate  from, 
and  surround,  the  Divine  Essence,  which  stood,  "a  shade  in 
midst  of  its  own  brightness."  Images  of  the  gods  were  deco- 
rated with  a  crown  of  rays,  or  with  stars  ;  and  when  the  Roman 
emperors  assumed  the  honors  due  to  divinity,  they  appeared  in 
public  crowned  with  golden  radii.  The  colossal  statue  of  Nero 
wore  a  circle  of  rays,  imitating  the  glory  of  the  sun.  This 
ornament  became  customary  ;  and  not  only  the  first  Caesars, 
but  the  Christian  emperors,  adopted  the  same  divine  insignia ; 
and  it  became  at  length  so  common  that  we  find  it  on  some 
medals,  round  the  heads  of  the  consuls  of  the  later  empire. 
Considered  in  the  East  as  the  attribute  of  power  only,  whether 
good  or  evil,  we  find,  wherever  early  Art  has  been  developed 
under  Byzantine  influences,  the  nimbus  thus  applied.  Satan, 
in  many  Greek,  Saxon,  and  French  miniatures,  from  the  ninth 
to  the  thirteenth  century,  wears  a  glory.  In  a  psalter  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  23 

twelfth  century,  the  Beast  of  the  Apocalypse  with  seven 
heads,  has  six  heads  surrounded  by  the  nimbus  ;  the  seventh, 
wounded  and  drooping,  is  without  the  sign  of  power. 

But  in  Western  Art  the  associations  with  this  attribute 
were  not  merely  those  of  dignity,  but  of  something  divine  and 
consecrated.  It  was  for  a  long  time  avoided  in  the  Christian 
representations  as  being  appropriated  by  false  gods  or  heathen 
pride ;  and  when  first  adopted  does  not  seem  clear.1  The 
earliest  example  cited  is  a  gem  of  St.  Martin  of  the  early  part 
of  the  sixth  century,  in  which  the  glory  round  his  head  seems 
to  represent  his  apotheosis ;  and  in  all  instances  it  is  evidently 
intended  to  represent  divine  glory  and  beatitude. 

The  glory  round  the  head  is  properly  the  nimbus  or  aureole. 
The  oblong  glory  surrounding  the  whole  person,  called  in 
Latin  the  vesica  piscis,  and  in  Italian  the  tnandorla  (almond) 
from  its  form,  is  confined  to  figures  of  Christ  and  the  Virgin, 
or  saints  who  are  in  the  act  of  ascending  into  heaven.  When 
used  to  distinguish  one  of  the  three  divine  persons  of  the 
Trinity,  the  glory  is  often  cruciform  or  triangular.  The  square 
nimbus  designates  a  person  living  at  the  time  the  work  was 
executed.  In  the  frescoes  of  Giotto  at  Assisi,  the  allegorical 
personages  are  in  some  instances  distinguished  by  the  hexagonal 
nimbus.  In  other  instances  it  is  circular.  From  the  fifth  to 
the  twelfth  century  the  nimbus  had  the  form  of  a  disc  or  plate 
over  the  head.2  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  century  it 
was  a  broad  golden  band,  round,  or  rather  behind  the  head, 
composed  of  circle  within  circle,  often  adorned  with  precious 
stones,  and  sometimes  having  the  name  of  the  saint  inscribed 
within  it.  From  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  a  bright  fillet 
over  the  head,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  it  disappeared 
altogether.  In  pictures  the  glory  is  always  golden,  the  color 
of  light ;  in  miniatures  and  stained  glass  I  have  seen  glories  of 
various  colors,  red,  blue,  or  green.3 

1  ["The  nimbus  is  little  seen  during  the  four  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era."     Christian  Iconography,  vol.  i.  p.  97.] 

2  A  metal  circle,  like  a  round  plate,  was  fastened  on  the  head  of  those 
statues  placed  in  the  open  air,  to  defend  them  from  the  rain  or  dust.    Some 
of  the  ancient  glories  are  very  like  those  plates,  but  I  do  not  think  they  are 
derived  from  them. 

3  I  believe  these  colored  glories  to  be  symbolical,  but  am  not  sure  of  the 
application  of  the  colors.    Jfcmong  the  miniatures  of  the  ffortus  Deliciarumt 
painted  in  1180,  is  a  representation  of  the  celestial  paradise,  in  which  the 


24  SACRED   AND* LEGENDARY   ART 

The  FISH  was  the  earliest,  the  most  universal,  of  the  Chris- 
tian emblems,  partly  as  the  symbol  of  water  and  the  rite  of 
baptism,  and  also  becavise  the  five  Greek  letters  which  express 
the  word  Fish  form  the  anagram  of  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ. 
In  this  sense  we  find  the  fish  as  a  general  symbol  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  upon  the  sarcophagi  of  the  early  Christians ;  on  the 
tombs  of  the  martyrs  in  the  Catacombs  ;  on  rings,  coins,  lamps, 
and  other  utensils  ;  and  as.  an  ornament  in  early  Christian 
architecture.  It  is  usually  a  dolphin,  Avhich  among  the  pagans 
had  also  a  sacred  significance. 

The  passage  in  the  Gospel,  "  Follow  me,  and  I  will  make 
you  fishers  of  men,"  is  supposed  to  have  originated  the  use  of 
this  symbol ;  and  I  may  observe  here,  that  the  fish  placed  in 
the  hands  of  St.  Peter  has  probably  a  double  or  treble  signifi- 
cation, alluding  to  his  former  occupation  as  a  fisherman,  his 
conversion  to  Christianity,  arid  his  vocation  as  a  Christian 
apostle,  i.  e.  a  fisher  of  men,  in  the  sense  used  by  Christ ; 
and  in  the  same  sense  we  find  it  given  as  an  attribute  to 
bishops  who  were  famous  for  converting  and  baptizing,  as  St. 
Zeno  of  Verona  and  Gregory  of  Tours. 

The  CROSS.  About  the  tenth  century  the  Fish  disap- 
peared, and  the  Cross  —  symbol  of  our  redemption  from  the 
apostolic  times  —  became  the  sole  and  universal  emblem  of 
the  Christian  faith.  The  cross  placed  in  the  hand  of  a  saint 
is  usually  the  Latin  cross  (1),  the  form  ascribed  to  the  cross  on 
which  our  Saviour  suffered.  Other  crosses  are  used  as  em- 
blems or  ornaments,  but  still  having  the  same  signification ;  as 
the  Greek  cross  (2),  in  which  the  arms  are  all  of  the  same 
length ;  the  transverse  cross,  on  which  St.  Andrew  is  supposed 
to  have  suffered,  in  this  form  (,3)  ;  the  Egyptian  cross,  some- 
times placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  Philip  the  apostle,  and  it 
was  also  the  form  of  the  crutch  of  St.  Anthony,  and  em- 
broidered on  his  cope  or  robe,  hence  it  is  called  St.  Anthony's 
cross  (4).  There  is  also  the  Maltese  cross,  and  various  orna- 
mental crosses.  The  double  cross  on  the  top  of  a  staff,  in- 
stead of  the  crosier,  is  borne  by  the  Pope  only  ;  the  staff  with 
a  single  cross  by  the  Greek  bishops. 

virgins,  the  apostles,  the  martyrs,  and  confessors  wear  the  golden  nimbus  ; 
the  prophets  and  the  patriarchs,  the  white  or  silver  nimbus  ;  the  saints  who 
strove  with  temptation,  the  red  nimbus  ;  those.*vho  were  married  have  the 
nimbus  green,  while  the  beatified  penitents  have  theirs  of  a  yellowish  white, 
somewhat  shaded.  (Didron  [Christian  Iconography,  vol.  i.  pp.  163-165].) 


INTRODUCTION 


25 


At  first,  the  Cross  was  a  sign  only.  When  formed  of  gold 
or  silver,  the  five  wounds  of  Christ  were  signified  by  a  ruby 
or  carbuncle  at  each  extremity,  and  one  in  the  centre.  It  was 
not  till  the  sixth  century  that  the  Cross  became  a  CRUCIFIX. 
no  longer  an  emblem,  but  an  image. 


The  LAMB,  in  Christian  Art,  is  the  peculiar  symbol  of  the 
Redeemer,  as  the  sacrifice  without  blemish ;  in  this  sense  it  is 
given  as  an  attribute  to  John  the  Baptist.  The  lamb  is  also 
the  general  emblem  of  innocence,  meekness,  modesty  ;  in  this 
sense  it  is  given  to  St.  Agnes,  of  whom  Massillon  said  so  beau- 
tifully, " Pen de  pudeur,  ou  il  n'y  a  pas  de  religion;  peu  de 
religion,  ou  il  n'y  a  pas  de  pudeur." 

The  PELICAN,  tearing  open  her  breast  to  feed  her  young 
with  her  own  blood,  was  an  early  symbol  of  our  redemption 
through  Christ. 

One  or  both  of  these  emblems  are  frequently  found  in  an- 
cient crosses  and  crucifixes ;  the  lamb  at  the  foot,  the  pelican 
at  the  top,  of  the  cross. 

The  DRAGOX  is  the  emblem  of  sin  in  general,  and  of  the 
sin  of  idolatry  in  particular  ;  and  the  dragon  slain  and  van- 
quished by  the  power  of  the  Cross  is  the  perpetually  recurring 
myth,  which,  varied  in  a  thousand  wajrs,  we  find  running 
through  all  the  old  Christian  legends  ;  not  subject  to  misap- 
prehension in  the  earliest  times  ;  but  as  the  cloud  of  ignorance 
darkened  and  deepened,  the  symbol  was  translated  into  a  fact. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  dragon,  which  is  to  us  a  phan- 
tasm and  an  allegory,  which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  the 
visible  shape  of  the  demon  adversary  of  all  truth  and  good- 
ness, might  have  been,  as  regards  form,  originally  a  .fact ;  for 
wherever  we  have  dragon  legends,  whether  the  scene  be  laid 
in  Asia,  Africa,  or  Europe,  the  imputed  circumstances  and  the 
form  are  little  varied.  The  dragons  introduced  into  early 
painting  and  sculpture  so  invariably  represent  a  gigantic 


26  SACRED   AND  LEGENDARY   ART 

winged  crocodile,  that  it  is  presumed  there  must  have  been 
some  common  origin  for  the  type  chosen  as  if  by  common  con- 
sent ;  and  that  this  common  type  may  have  been  some  fossil 
remains  of  the  Saurian  species,  or  even  some  far-off  dim  tradi- 
tion of  one  of  these  tremendous  reptiles  surviving  in  Heaven 
knows  what  vast  desolate  morass  or  inland  lake,  and  spreading 
horror  and  devastation  along  its  shores.  At  Aix,  a  huge  fos- 
silized head  of  one  of  the  Sauri  was  for  a  long  time  preserved 
as  the  head  of  the  identical  dragon  subdued  by  St.  Martha ; 
and  St.  Jerome  relates  that  he  had  himself  beheld  at  Tyre 
the  bones  of  the  sea  monster  to  which  Andromeda  had  been 
exposed  —  probably  some  fossil  remains,  which  in  the  popular 
imagination  were  thus  accounted  for.  Professor  Owen  told 
me  that  the  head  of  a  dragon  in  one  of  the  legendary  pictures 
he  had  seen  in  Italy  closely  resembled  in  form  that  of  the 
Deinotherium  Giganteum.  These  observations  have  refer- 
ence only  to  the  type  adopted  when  the  old  Scripture  allegory 
took  form  and  shape.  The  dragon  of  Holy  Writ  is  the  same 
as  the  serpent,  i.  e.  personified  sin,  the  spiritual  enemy  of  man- 
kind. » 

The  Scriptural  phrase  of  the  "jaws  of  hell"  is  literally 
rendered  in  the  ancient  works  of  Art  by  the  huge  jaws  of  a 
dragon,  wide  open  and  emitting  flames,  into  which  the  souls  of 
sinners  are  tumbled  headlong.  In  pictures,  sin  is  also  typified 
by  a  serpent  or  snake  ;  in  this  form  it  is  placed  under  the 
feet  of  the  Madonna,  sometimes  with  an  apple  in  its  mouth  ; 
sometimes,  but  only  in  late  pictures  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, winding  its  green  scaly  length  round  and  round  a  globe, 
significant  of  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  earth  to  the  power 
of  sin  till  delivered  by  the  Redeemer.  On  this  subject  I  shall 
have  much  'more  to  say  when  treating  of  the  pictures  of  the 
Fall  of  Man,  and  the  subjects  taken  from  the  Apocalypse  :  for 
the  present  we  need  only  bear  in  mind  ttie  various  significa- 
tions of  the  popular  Dragon  myth,  which  may  shadow  forth 
the  conquest  over  sin,  as  in  the  legends  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
Margaret ;  or  over  paganism,  as  in  the  legends  of  St.  Sylves- 
ter and  St.  George ;  or  sometimes  a  destroying  flood,  as  in  the 
legend  of  St.  Martha,  where  the  inundatiw  of  the  Rhone  is 
figured  by  a  dragon  emerging  from  the  waters  and  spreading 
around  death  and  pestilence,  —  like  the  Python  of  the  Grecian 
myth. 


INTRODUCTION  27 

The  Liox,  as  an  ancient  Christian  symbol,  is  of  frequent 
recurrence,  more  particularly  in  architectural  decoration.  An- 
tiquaries are  not  agreed  as  to  the  exact  meaning  attached  to 
the  mystical  lions  placed  in  the  porches  of  so  many  old  Lom- 
bard churches ;  sometimes  with  an  animal,  sometimes  with  a 
man,  in  their  paws.  But  we  find,  that  the  lion  was  an  ancient 
symbol  of  the  Kedeemer,  "  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah :  " 
also  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Redeemer ;  because,  according 
to  an  oriental  fable,  the  lion's  cub  was  born  dead,  and  in  three 
days  its  sire  licked  it  into  life.  In  this  sense  it  occurs  in  the 
windows  of  the  cathedral  at  Bourges.  In  either  sense  it  may 
probably  have  been  adopted  as  a  frequent  ornament  in  the 
church  utensils,  and  in  ecclesiastical  decoration,  supporting 
the  pillars  in  front,  or  the  carved  thrones,  etc. 

The  lion  also  typifies  solitude  —  the  wilderness ;  and,  in 
this  sense,  is  placed  near  St.  Jerome  and  other  saints  who  did 
penance,  or  lived  as  hermits  in  the  desert ;  as  in  the  legends 
of  St.  Paul  the  hermit,  St.  Mary  of  Egypt,  St.  Onofrio. 
Further,  the  lion  as  an  attribute  denoted  death  in  the  amphi- 
theatre, and  with  this  signification  is  placed  near  certain  mar- 
tyrs, as  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Euphemia.  The  lion,  as  the 
type  of  fortitude  and  resolution,  was  placed  at  the  feet  of 
those  martyrs  who  had  suffered  with  singular  courage,  as  St. 
Adrian  and  St.  Xatalia.  In  the  example  of  St.  Jerom^,  a 
lion  may  have  originally  typified  any  hindrance  in  the  way  of 
study  or  of  duty  ;  in  allusion  to  the  text,  "  The  slothful  man 
saith,  There  is  a  lion  in  the  way."  (Prov.  xxvi.  13.) 

When  other  wild  beasts,  as  wolves  and  bears,  are  placed  at 
the  feet  of  a  saint  attired  as  abbot  or  bishop,  it  signifies  that  he 
cleared  waste  land,  cut  down  forests,  and  substituted  Christian 
culture  and  civilization  for  paganism  and  the  lawless  hunter's 
life ;  such  is  the  significance  in  pictures  of  St.  Magnus,  St. 
Florentius,  and  St.  Germain  of  Auxerre. 

The  HART  or  HIXD  was  also  an  emblem  of  double  signifi- 
cation. It  was  a  type  of  solitude  and  of  purity  of  life,  and 
was  also  a  type  of  piety  and  religious  aspiration,  adopted 
from  the  forty-second  Psalm,  "  Like  as  the  hart  panteth  aftef 
the  water-brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  for  Thee,  0  God  !  " 

When  the  original  meaning  of  the  lion,  the  hart,  and  other 
emblems  was  no  longer  present  to  the  popular  mind,  legends 
were  invented  to  account  for  them  ;  and  that  which  had  been 


28  SACRED   AND   LEGENDARY   ART 

a  symbol  became  an  incident,  or  an  historical  attribute,  —  as 
in  the  stories  of  the  lion  healed  by  St.  Jerome,  or  digging 
the  grave  of  St.  Paul ;  the  miraculous  stag  which  appeared  to 
St.  Eustace  and  St.  Hubert ;  the  wounded  doe  in  the  legend 
of  St.  Giles ;  and  the  hind  which  spoke  to  St.  Julian. 

The  PEACOCK,  the  bird  of  Juno,  was  an  ancient  pagan  sym- 
bol, signifying  the  apotheosis  of  an  empress,  as  we  find  from 
many  of  the  old  Koman  coins  and  medals.  The  early  Chris- 
tians, accustomed  to  this  interpretation,  adopted  it  as  a  general 
emblem  of  the  mortal  exchanged  for  the  immortal  existence  ; 
and,  with  this  signification,  we  find  the  peacock  with  out- 
spread train  on  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  catacombs,  the  tombs 
of  the  martyrs,  and  many  of  the  sarcophagi,  down  to  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  It  is  only  in  modern  times  that 
the  peacock  has  become  the  emblem  of  worldly  pride. 

The  CROWN,  as  introduced  in  Christian  Art,  is  either  an 
emblem  or  an  attribute.  It  has  been  the  emblem  from  all 
antiquity  of  victory,  and  of  recompense  due  to  superior  power 
or  virtue.  In  this  sense  the  word  and  the  image  are  used  in 
Scripture  in  many  passages  :  for  example,  "  Henceforth  there  is 
laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness."  And  in  this  sense, 
as  the  recompense  of  those  who  had  fought  the  good  fight  to  the 
end,  and  conquered,  the  crown  became  the  especial  symbol  of  the 
glory  of  martyrdom.  In  very  ancient  pictures,  a  hand  is  seen 
coming  out  of  heaven  holding  a  wreath  or  circlet ;  afterwards 
it  is  an  angel  who  descends  with  a  crown,  which  is  sometimes 
a  coronet  of  gold  and  jewels,  sometimes  a  wreath  of  palm  or 
myrtle.  In  general  only  the  female  martyrs  wear  the  sym- 
bolical crown  of  glory ;  martyrs  of  the  other  sex  hold  the 
crown  in  their  hands,  or  it  is  borne  by  an  angel.  Hence  we 
may  presume  that  the  crown,  which  among  the  Jews  was  the 
especial  ornament  of  a  bride,  signified  the  bride  or  spouse  of 
Christ  —  one  dedicated  to  virginity  for  his  sake ;  and  in  this 
sense,  down  to  the  present  time,  the  crown  is  placed  on  the 
head  of  a  nun  at  the  moment  of  consecration.  Therefore  in 
the  old  pictures  of  female  martyrs  we  may  interpret  the  crown 
in  this  double  sense,  as  signifying  at  once  the  bride  and  the 
martyr. 

But  it  is  necessary  also  to  distinguish  between  the  symbol 
and  the  attribute  :  thus,  where  St.  Cecilia  and  St.  Barbara  wear 
the  crown,  it  is  the  symbol  of  their  glorious  martyrdom  ;  Avhen 


INTRODUCTION  29 

St.  Catherine  and  St.  Ursula  wear  the  crown,  it  is  at  once  as 
the  symbol  of  martyrdom  and  the  attribute  of  their  royal  rank 
as  princesses. 

The  crown  is  also  the  symbol  of  sovereignty.  When  it  is 
placed  on  the  head  of  the  Virgin,  it  is  as  Queen  of  Heaven, 
and  also  as  the  "  Spouse  "  of  Scripture  allegory. 

But  the  crown  is  also  an  attribute,  and  frequently,  when 
worn  by  a  saint  or  placed  at  his  feet,  signifies  that  he  was 
royal  or  of  princely  birth :  as  in  the  pictures  of  Louis '  of 
France,  St.  William,  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  Helena,  and  many 
others. 

The  crowns  in  the  Italian  pictures  are  generally  a  wreath, 


or  a  simple  circle  of  gold  and  jewels,  or  a  coronet  radiated  with 
a  few  points.  But  in  the  old  German  pictures  the  crown  is 
often  of  most  magnificent  workmanship,  blazing  with  jewels. 

I  have  seen  a  real  silver  crown  placed  on  the  figures  of  cer- 
tain popular  saints,  but  as  a  votive  tribute,  not  an  emblem. 

The  SWORD  is  also  either  a  symbol  or  an  attribute.  As  a 
symbol,  it  signifies  generally  a  martyrdom  by  any  violent 
death,  and,  in  this  sense,  is  given  to  many  saints  who  did  not 
die  by  the  sword.  As  an  attribute,  it  signifies  the  particular 
death  suffered,  and  that  the  martyr  in  whose  hand  or  at  whose 
feet  it  is  placed  was  beheaded ;  in  this  sense  it  is  given  to  St. 
Paul,  St.  Catherine,  and  many  others.  It  is  given  also  to  the 
warrior  martyrs,  as  the  attribute  of  their  military  profession. 
Other  symbols  of  martyrdom  are  the  AXE,  the  LAXCE,  and  the 
CLUB. 

ARROWS,  which  are  attributes,  St.  Ursula,  St.  Christian,  and 
St.  Sebastian. 

The  POXIARD,  given  to  St.  Lucia. 

The  CAULDRON,  given  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist  and  St. 
Cecilia. 

The  PIXCERS  and  SHEARS,  St.  Apollonia  and  St.  Agatha. 


30 


SACRED   AND   LEGENDARY   ART 


The  WHEELS,  St.  Catherine. 

FIRE  and  FLAMES  are  sometimes  an  emblem  of  martyrdom 
and  punishment,  and  sometimes  of  religious  fervor. 

A  BELL  was  supposed  to  have  power  to  exorcise  demons, 
and  for  this  reason  is  given  to  the  haunted  St.  Anthony. 

The  SHELL  signifies  pilgrimage. 

The  SKULL,  penance. 

The  ANVIL,  as  an  attribute  of  martyrdom,  belongs  to  St. 
Adrian  only. 

The  PALM,  the  ancient  classical  symbol  of  victory  and  tri- 
umph, was  early  assumed  by  the  Christians  as  the  universal 
symbol  of  martyrdom,  and  for  this  adaptation  of  a  pagan 
ornament  they  found  warrant  in  Scripture :  Rev.  vii.  9, 
"  And  after  this  I  beheld,  and  lo,  a  great  multitude  stood 
before  the  throne,  clothed  with  white  robes,  and  with  palms  in 
their  hands."  ..."  And  he  said  to  me,  These  are  they  which 
came  out  of  great  tribulation."  Hence  in  pictures  of  martyr- 
doms an  angel  descends  with  the  palm ;  hence  it  is  figured  on 
the  tombs  of  early  martyrs,  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  those 
who  suffered  in  the  cause  of  truth,  as  expressing  their  final 
victory  over  the  powers  of  sin  and  death. 

The  sensual  think  with  reverence  of  the  palm 
Which  the  chaste  votary  wields. 

The  palm  varies  in  form  from  a  small  leaf  to  the  size  of  a 
palm  branch,  almost  a  tree.  It  is  very  small  in  the  early 
Italian  pictures,  very  large  in  the  Spanish  pictures.  In  the 


Siena  pictures  it  has  a  bunch  of  dates  depending  from  it.  It 
is  only  in  late  pictures  that  the  palm,  with  a  total  disregard  to 
the  sacredness  of  its  original  signification,  is  placed  on  the 
ground,  or  under  the  feet  of  the  saint. 


INTRODUCTION  31 

The  STANDARD,  or  banner,  is  also  the  symbol  of  victory, 
the  spiritual  victory  over  sin,  death,  and  idolatry.  It  is  borne 
by  our  Saviour  after  His  resurrection,  and  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  St.  George,  St.  Maurice,  and  other  military  saints ; 
in  the  hands  of  some  victorious  martyrs,  as  St.  Julian,  St. 
Ansano,  and  of  those  who  preached  the  Gospel  among  infidels ; 
also  in  the  hands  of  St.  Ursula  and  St.  Eeparata,  the  only 
female  saints,  I  believe,  who  bear  this  attribute. 

The  OLIVE,  as  the  well-known  emblem  of  peace  and  rec- 
onciliation, is  figured  on  the  tombs  of  the  early  martyrs  ; 
sometimes  with,  sometimes  without,  the  dove.  The  olive  is 
borne  as  the  attribute  of  peace  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  by  St. 
Agnes,  and  by  St.  Pantaleon ;  sometimes  also  by  the  angels 
in  a  Nativity,  who  announce  "  peace  on  earth." 

The  DOVE  in  Christian  Art  is  the  emblem  of  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  and,  besides  its  introduction  into  various  subjects 
from  the  New  Testament,  as  the  Annunciation,  the  Baptism, 
the  Pentecost,  it  is  placed  near  certain  saints  who  are  supposed 
to  have  been  particularly  inspired,  as  St.  Gregory,  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  St.  Hilarius,  and  others. 

The  dove  is  also  a  symbol  of  simplicity  and  purity  of  heart, 
and,  as  such,  it  is  introduced  into  pictures  of  female  saints, 
and  especially  of  the  Madonna  and  Child. 

It  is  also  the  emblem  of  the  soul ;  in  this  sense  it  is  seen 
issuing  from  the  lips  of  dying  martyrs,  and  is  found  in  pic- 
tures of  St.  Eulalia  of  Merida,  and  St.  Scholastica  the  sister 
of  St.  Benedict. 

The  LILY  is  another  symbol  of  purity,  of  very  general  ap- 
plication. We  find  it  in  pictures  of  the  Virgin,  and  particu- 
larly in  pictures  of  the  Annunciation.  It  is  placed  significantly 
in  the  hand  of  St.  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
his  staff,  according  to  the  legend,  having  put  forth  lilies  ;  it  is 
given,  as  an  emblem  merely,  to  St.  Francis,  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua,  St.  Dominick,  and  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  to  express 
the  particular  purity  of  their  lives. 

The  UNICORN  is  another  ancient  symbol  of  purity,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  fable  that  it  could  never  be  captured  except  by  a 
virgin  stainless  in  mind  and  life  ;  it  has  become  in  consequence 
the  emblem  peculiarly  of  female  chastity,  but  in  Christian  Art 
is  appropriate  only  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  St.  Justina. 

The  FLAMING  HEART  expresses  fervent  piety  and  love  :  in 


32  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY . ART 

early  pictures  it  is  given  to  St.  Augustine,  merely  in  allusion 
to  a  famous  passage  in  his  "  Confessions ;  "  but  in  the  later 
schools  of  Art  it  has  become  a  general  and  rather  vulgar  em- 
blem of  spiritual  love  :  in  this  sense  it  is  given  to  St.  Theresa ; 
St.  Maria  Maddalena  de'  Pazzi,  a  Florentine  nun ;  and  some 
of  the  Jesuit  saints. 

The  BOOK  in  the  hands  of  the  Evangelists  and  the  Apostles 
is  an  attribute,  and  represents  the  Gospel.  In  the  hand  of 
St.  Stephen  it  is  the  Old  Testament;  in  the  hand  of  any  other 
saint  it  may  be  the  Gospel,  but  it  may  also  be  an  emblem  only, 
signifying  that  the  saint  was  famous  for  his  learning  or  his 
writings ;  it  has  this  sense  in  pictures  of  St.  Catherine,  the 
Doctors  of  the  Church,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  St.  Bona- 
ventura. 

A  CHURCH  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  saint  signifies  that  he 
was  the  founder  of  some  particular  church :  in  this  sense  St. 
Henry  bears  the  cathedral  of  Bamberg ;  or,  that  he  was  the 
protector  and  first  bishop  of  the  Church,  as  St.  Petronius  bears 
the  cathedral  of  Bologna.  I  must  except  the  single  instance 
of  St.  Jerome ;  the  church  in  his  hands  signifies  no  particular 
edifice,  but,  in  a  general  sense,  the  Catholic  Church,  of  which 
he  was  the  great  support  and  one  of  the  primitive  fathers;  to 
render  the  symbol  more  expressive,  rays  of  light  are  seen  pro- 
ceeding from  the  portal. 

The  SCOURGE  in  the  hand  of  a  saint,  or  at  his  feet,  signifies 
the  penances  he  inflicted  upon  himself ;  but  in  the  hand  of 
St.  Ambrose  it  signifies  the  penance  he  inflicted  upon  others. 

The  CHALICE,  or  Sacramental  Cup,  with  the  Host,  signifies 
Faith  ;  it  is  given  to  St.  Barbara.  The  Cup,  with  the  Serpent, 
is  the  attribute  of  St.  John. 

The  SHIP.  --  The  Ark  of  Noah,  floating  safe  amid  the 
Deluge,  in  which  all  things  else  were  overwhelmed,  was  an  ob- 
vious symbol  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  Subsequently  the  Ark 
became  a  ship.  St.  Ambrose  likens  the  Church  of  God  to  a 
ship,  and  the  Cross  to  the  mast  set  in  the  midst  of  it.  "Arbor 
quvcdam  in  navi  est  crux  in  ecclesia."  The  Bark  of  St. 
Peter  tossed  in  the  storm,  and  by  the  Redeemer  guided  safe  to 
land,  was  also  considered  as  symbolical.  These  mingled  asso- 
ciations combined  to  give  to  the  emblem  of  the  ship  a  sacred 
significance.  Every  one  who  has  been  at  Home  will  remem- 
ber the  famous  mosaic  of  the  ship  tossed  by  the  storms,  and 


INTRODUCTION  33 

assailed  by  demons,  called  THE  NAVICELLA,  which  was  exe- 
cuted by  Giotto  for  the  old  Basilica  of  St.  Peter's,  and  is  now 
under  the  Portico,  opposite  to  the  principal  door.  I  believe 
that  in  the  pictures  of  St.  Nicholas  and  St.  Ursula  the  ship 
had  originally  a  sacred  and  symbolical  significance,  and  that 
the  legends  were  afterwards  invented  or  modified  to  explain 
the  emblem,  as  in  so  many  other  instances. 

The  ANCHOR  is  the  Christian  symbol  of  immovable  firm- 
ness, hope,  and  patience  ;  and  in  this  sense  we  find  it  very 
frequently  in  the  catacombs,  and  on  the  ancient  Christian 
gems.  It  was  given  to  several  of  the  early  saints  as  a  symbol. 
Subsequently  a  legend  was  invented  to  account  for  the  symbol, 
turning  it  into  an  attribute,  as  was  the  case  with  the  lion  and 
the  stag.  For  example  :  to  St.  Clement  the  anchor  was  first 
given  as  the  symbol  of  his  constancy  in  Christian  hope,  and 
thence  we  find,  subsequently  invented,  the  story  of  his  being 
thrown  into  the  sea  with  the  anchor  round  his  neck.  On  the 
vane  of  thfe  Church  of  St.  Clement  in  the  Strand,  the  anchor, 
the  parish  device,  was  anciently  placed  ;  and  as  in  the  English 
fancy  no  anchor  can  be  well  separated  from  a  ship,  they  have 
lately  placed  a  ship  on  the  other  side  —  the  original  signifi- 
cation of  the  anchor,  as  applied  to  St.  Clement,  the  martyr, 
being  unknown  or  forgotten. 

The  LAMP,  LANTERN,  or  TAPER,  is  the  old  emblem  of 
piety  :  "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men  :  "  — and  it  also 
signifies  wisdom.  In  the  first  sense  we  find  this  attribute  in 
the  hand  of  St.  Gudula,  St.  Genevieve  of  Paris,  and  St. 
Bridget ;  while  the  lamp  in  the  hand  of  St.  Lucia  signifies 
celestial  light  or  wisdom. 

FLOWERS  and  FRUITS,  often  so  beautifully  introduced  into 
ecclesiastical  works  of  Art,  may  be  merely  ornamental ;  Crivelli, 
and  some  of  the  Venetian  and  Lombard  painters,  were  fond  of 
rich  festoons  of  fruit  and  backgrounds  of  foliage  and  roses. 
But  in  some  instances  they  have  a  definite  significance.  Roses 
are  symbolical  in  pictures  of  the  Madonna,  who  is  the  "  Rose 
of  Sharon."  (  Vide  Legends  of  the  Madonna.)  The  wreath 
of  roses  on  the  brow  of  St.  Cecilia,  the  roses  and  fruits  Borne 
by  St.  Dorothea,  are  explained  by  the  legends. 

The  apple  was  the  received  emblem  of  the  Fall  of  man  and 
original  sin.  Placed  in  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  Child, 
either  in  the  hand  of  the  infant  Christ,  or  presented  by  an 


34  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

angel,  it  signified  Redemption  from  the  consequences  of  the 
Fall.  The  pomegranate,  bursting  open,  and  the  seeds  visible, 
was  an  emblem  of  the  future,  —  of  hope  in  immortality.  When 
an  apple,  a  pear,  or  a  pomegranate  is  placed  in  the  hand  of  St. 
Catherine  as  the  mystical  Sposa  of  Christ,  which  continually 
occurs,  particularly  in  the  German  pictures,  the  allusion  is  to 
be  taken  in  the  Scriptural  sense  :  "  The  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is 
love,  joy,  peace." 

V.    OP  THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  COLORS 

In  very  early  Art  we  find  colors  used  in  a  symbolical  or 
mystic  sense,  and,  until  the  ancient  principles  and  traditions 
were  wholly  worn  out  of  memory  or  set  aside  by  the  later 
painters,  certain  colors  were  appropriate  to  certain  subjects  and 
personages,  and  could  not  arbitrarily  be  applied  or  misapplied. 
In  the  old  specimens  of  stained  glass  we  find  these  significa- 
tions scrupulously  attended  to.  Thus  :  — 

WHITE,  represented  by  the  diamond  or  silver,  was  the 
emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  virginity,  faith, 
joy,  and  life.  Our  Saviour  wears  white  after  His  resurrection. 
In  the  judge  it  indicated  integrity  ;  in  the  rich  man  humility  ; 
in  the  woman  chastity.  It  was  the  color  consecrated  to  the 
Virgin,  who,  however,  never  wears  white  except  in  pictures  of 
the  Assumption. 

RED,  the  ruby,  signified  fire,  divine  love,  the  Holy  Spirit, 
heat,  or  the  creative  power,  and  royalty.  White  and  red  roses 
expressed  love  and  innocence,  or  love  and  wisdom,  as  in  the 
garland  with  which  the  angel  crowns  St.  Cecilia.  In  a  bad 
sense,  red  signified  blood,  war,  hatred,  and  punishment.  Red 
and  black  combined  were  the  colors  of  purgatory  and  the 
Devil. 

BLUE,  or  the  sapphire,  expressed  heaven,  the  firmament, 
truth,  constancy,  fidelity.  Christ  and  the  Virgin  wear  the  red 
tunic  and  the  blue  mantle,  as  signifying  heavenly  love  and 
heavenly  truth.1  The  same  colors  were  given  to  St.  John  the 
evangelist,  with  this  difference,  —  that  he  wore  the  blue  tunic 
and  the  red  mantle ;  in  later  pictures  the  colors  are  sometimes 
red  and  green. 

1  In  the  Spanish  schools  the  color  of  our  Saviour's  mantle  is  generally  a 
deep  rich  violet. 


INTRODUCTION  35 

YELLOW,  or  gold,  was  the  symbol  of  the  sun  ;  of  the  good- 
ness of  God  ;  initiation,  or  marriage ;  faith,  or  fruitf ulness. 
St.  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin,  wears  yellow.  In  pic- 
tures of  the  apostles,  St.  Peter  wears  a  yellow  mantle  over  a 
blue  tunic.  In  a  bad  sense,  yellow  signifies  inconstancy, 
jealousy,  deceit ;  in  this  sense  it  is  given  to  the  traitor  Judas, 
who  is  generally  habited  in  dirty  yellow. 

GREEX,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  spring ;  of  hope,  par- 
ticularly hope  in  immortality ;  and  of  victory,  as  the  color  of 
the  palm  and  the  laurel. 

VIOLET,  the  amethyst,  signified  love  and  truth :  or  passion 
and  suffering.  Hence  it  is  the  color  often  worn  by  the  mar- 
tyrs. In  some  instances  our  Saviour,  after  His  resurrection, 
is  habited  in  a  violet  instead  of  a  blue  mantle.  The  Virgin 
also  wears  violet  after  the  crucifixion.  Mary  Magdalene,  who 
as  patron  saint  wears  the  red  robe,  as  penitent  wears  violet  and 
blue,  the  colors.,  of  sorrow  and  of  constancy.  In  the  devotional 
representation  of  her  by  Timoteo  della  Vite  (Bologna  Gallery), 
she  wears  red  and  green,  the  colors  of  love  and  hope. 

GRAY,  the  color  of  ashes,  signified  mourning,  humility,  and 
innocence  accused  ;  hence  adopted  as  the  dress  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans (the  Grey  Friars)  ;  but  it  has  since  been  changed  for  a 
dark  rusty  brown. 

BLACK  expressed  the  earth,  darkness,  mourning,  wicked- 
ness, negation,  death ;  and  was  appropriate  to  the  Prince  of 
Darkness.  In  some  old  illuminated  MSS.,  Jesus,  in  the 
Temptation,  wears  a  black  robe.  White  and  black  together 
signified  purity  of  life,  and  mourning  or  humiliation;  hence 
adopted  by  the  Dominicans  and  the  Carmelites. 

The  mystical  application  of  attributes  and  colors  was  more 
particularly  attended  to  in  that  class  of  subjects  I  have  distin- 
guished as  devotional.  In  the  sacred  historical  pictures  we 
find  that  the  attributes  are  usually  omitted  as  superfluous,  and 
characteristic  propriety  of  color  often  sacrificed  to  the  general 
effect. 

These  introductory  observations  and  explanations  will  be 
found  illustrated  in  a  variety  of  forms  as  we  proceed ;  and 
readers  will  be  led  to  make  comparisons  and  discover  analogies 
and  exceptions  for  themselves.  I  must  stop  here  ;  —  yet  one 
word  more. 


36  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART 

All  the  productions  of  Art,  from  the  time  it  has  been 
directed  and  developed  by  Christian  influences,  may  be  re- 
garded under  three  different  aspects.  1.  The  purely  religious 
aspect,  which  belongs  to  one  mode  of  faith  ;  2.  The  poetical 
aspect,  wnich  belongs  to  all ;  3.  The  artistic,  which  is  the 
individual  point  of  view,  and  has  reference  only  to  the  action 
of  the  intellect  on  the  means  and  material  employed.  There 
is  pleasure,  intense  pleasure,  merely  in  the  consideration  of 
Art  as  Art ;  in  the  faculties  of  comparison  and  nice  discrimi- 
nation brought  to  bear  on  objects  of  beauty ;  in  the  exercise 
of  a  cultivated  and  refined  taste  on  the  productions  of  mind  in 
any  form  whatever.  But  a  threefold,  or  rather  a  thousand 
fold,  pleasure  is  theirs  who  to  a  sense  of  the  poetical  unite  a 
sympathy  with  the  spiritual  in  Art,  and  who  combine  with 
delicacy  of  perception  and  technical  knowledge  more  elevated 
sources  of  pleasure,  more  variety  of  association,  habits  of  more 
excursive  thought.  Let  none  imagine,  however,  that,  in  pla- 
cing before  the  uninitiated  these  unpretending  volumes,  I  as- 
sume any  such  superiority  as  is  here  implied.  Like  a  child 
that  has  sprung  on  a  little  way  before  its  playmates,  and  caught 
a  glimpse  through  an  opening  portal  of  some  varied  Eden 
within,  all  gay  with  flowers  and  musical  with  birds,  and 
haunted  by  divine  shapes  which  beckon  onward;  and,  after 
one  rapturous  survey,  runs  back  and  catches  its  companions  by 
the  hand  and  hurries  them  forward  to  share  the  new-found 
pleasure,  the  yet  unexplored  region  of  delight ;  even  so  it  is 
with  me :  I  am  on  the  outside,  not  the  inside,  of  the  door  I 
open. 


II.    OF  ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS 

I.  'ANGELS 

THERE  is  something  so  very  attractive  and  poetical,  as  well 
as  soothing  to  our  helpless  finite  nature,  in  all  the  supersti- 
tions connected  with  the  popular  notion  of  Angels,  that  we 
cannot  wonder  at  their  prevalence  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
world.  Those  nations  who  acknowledged  one  Almighty  Crea- 
tor, and  repudiated  with  horror  the  idea  of  a  plurality  of  gods, 
were  the  most  willing  to  accept,  the  most  enthusiastic  in 
accepting,  these  objects  of  an  intermediate  homage  ;  and  gladly 
placed  between  their  humanity  and  the  awful  supremacy  of  an 
unseen  God  the  ministering  spirits  who  were  the  agents  of 
His  will,  the  witnesses  of  His  glory,  the  partakers  of  His 
bliss,  and  who  in  their  preternatural  attributes  of  love  and 
knowledge  filled  up  that  vast  space  in  the  created  universe 
which  intervened  between  mortal  man  and  the  infinite,  omni- 
potent LORD  OF  ALL. 

The  belief  in  these  superior  beings,  dating  from  immemorial 
antiquity,  interwoven  as  it  should  seem  with  our  very  nature, 
and  authorized  by  a  variety  of  passages  in  Scripture,  has  de- 
scended to  our  time.  Although  the  bodily  forms  assigned  to 
them  are  allowed  to  be  impossible,  and  merely  allegorical, 
although  their  supposed  functions  as  rulers  of  the  stars  and 
elements  have  long  been  set  aside  by  a  knowledge  of  the  natu- 
ral laws,  still  the  coexistence  of  many  orders  of  beings  superior 
in  nature  to  ourselves,  benignly  interested  in  our  welfare,  and 
contending  for  us  against  the  powers  of  evil,  remains  an  article 
of  faith.  Perhaps  the  belief  itself,  and  the  feeling  it  excites 
in  the  tender  and  contemplative  mind,  were  never  more  beauti- 
fully expressed  than  by  our  own  Spenser :  — 

And  is  there  care  in  heaven  ?    And  is  there  love 
»  In  heavenly  spirits  to  these  creatures  base, 

That  may  compassion  of  their  evils  move  ? 
There  is  !  —  else  much  more  wretched  were  the  case 


38  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

Of  men  than  beasts  !    But  oh,  th'  exceeding  grace 
Of  highest  God  that  loves  His  creatures  so, 
And  all  His  works  with  mercy  doth  embrace, 
That  blessed  angels  He  sends  to  and  fro 
To  serve  to  wicked  man,  to  serve  His  wicked  foe. 

How  oft  do  they  their  silver  bowers  leave, 

And  come  to  succor  us  that  succor  want  ? 

How  oft  do  they  with  golden  pinions  cleave 

The  flitting  skies,  like  flying  pursuivant, 

Against  foul  fiends,  to  aid  us  militant  ? 

They  for  us  fight,  they  watch,  and  duly  ward, 

And  their  bright  squadrons  round  about  us  plant, 

And  all  for  love,  and  nothing  for  reward  ! 

Oh,  why  should  heavenly  God  to  men  have  such  regard  ! 

[Faery  Queene,  book  ii.  canto  viii.] 

It  is  this  feeling,  expressed  or  unexpressed,  lurking  at  the 
very  core  of  all  hearts,  which  renders  the  usual  representations 
of  angels,  spite  of  all  incongruities  of  form,  so  pleasing  to  the 
fancy :  we  overlook  the  anatomical  solecisms,  and  become 
mindful  only  of  that  emblematical  significance  which  through 
its  humanity  connects  it  with  us,  and  through  its  supernatural 
appendages  connects  us  with  heaven. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  brief  summary  of  the  Scriptural 
and  theological  authorities,  relative  to  the  nature  and  functions 
of  angels,  before  we  can  judge  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
ideas  have  been  attended  to  and  carried  out  in  the  artistic 
similitudes.  Thus  angels  are  represented  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  — 

1.  As  beings  of  a  higher  nature  than  men,  and  gifted  with 
superior  intelligence  and  righteousness.      (2  Sam.  xiv.  17.) 

2.  As  a  host  of  attendants  surrounding  the  throne  of  God, 
and  as  a  kind  of  celestial  court  or  council.      (Gen.  xxxii.  1, 
2 ;  Ps.  ciii.  21 ;  1  Kings  xxii.  19 ;  Job  i.  6.) 

3.  As  messengers   of   His  will  conveyed    from    heaven  to 
earth ;  or  as  sent  to  guide,  to  correct,  to  instruct,  to  reprove, 
to  console. 

4.  As  protecting  the  pious. 

5.  As  punishing  by  command  of  the  Most  High  the  wicked 
and  disobedient.      (Gen.  xxii.  11 ;  Exod.  xiv.  19  ;  Num.  xx. 
16 ;  Gen.  xxi.  17  ;  Judg.  xiii.  3 ;  2  Kings  i.  3 ;  Ps.  xxxiv. 
7 ;  Judith  xiii.  20.) 

6.  As  having  the  form  of  men ;  as  eating  and  drinking. 

7.  As  wielding  a  sword. 


ANGELS  39 

8.  As  having  power  to  slay.  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16 ;  2  Kings 
xix.  35;  Gen.  xviii.  8;  Num.  xxii.  31;  1  Chron.  xxi.  16; 
Gen.  xix.  13.) 

I  do  not  recollect  any  instance  in  which  angels  are  repre- 
sented in  Scripture  as  instigated  by  human  passions ;  they 
are  merely  the  agents  of  the  mercy  or  the  wrath  of  the 
Almighty. 

After  the  period  of  the  Captivity,  the  Jewish  ideas  concern- 
ing angels  were  considerably  extended  and  modified  by  an 
admixture  of  the  Chaldaic  belief,  and  of  the  doctrines  taught 
by  Zoroaster.  (Calmet.)  It  is  then  that  we  first  hear  of 
good  and  bad  angels,  and  of  a  fallen  angel  or  personation  of 
evil,  busy  in  working  mischief  on  earth  and  counteracting 
good ;  also  of  archangels,  who  are  alluded  to  by  name ;  and 
of  guardian  angels  assigned  to  nations  and  individuals ;  and 
these  foreign  ideas  concerning  the  spiritual  world,  accepted 
and  promulgated  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  pervade  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  which  angels  are  far  more  familiar  to  us 
as  agents,  more  frequently  alluded  to,  and  more  distinctly 
brought  before  us,  than  in  the  Old  Testament.  For  example : 
they  are  represented  — 

1.  As  countless. 

2.  As  superior  to  all  human  wants  and  weaknesses. 

3.  As  the  deputed  messengers  of  God. 

4.  They  rejoice    over    the    repentant    sinner.     They  take 
deep  interest  in  the  mission  of  Christ. 

5.  They  are  present  with  those  who  pray ;  they  bear  the 
souls  o£  the  just  to  heaven. 

6.  They  minister  to  Christ  on  earth,  and  will  be  present  at 
His  second  coming.      (Matt.  xxvi.  53 ;  Heb.  xii.  22 ;  Matt. 
xxii.  30 ;  Luke  xx.  36 ;  Matt.  xix.  24 ;   Luke  i.  11 ;  Acts  v. 
19  et  passim  ;  Luke  xv.  10 ;  1  Peter  i.  12 ;  Luke  xvi.  22 ; 
Heb.  i.  14  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  10  ;  Matt.  i.  20,  xvi.  27,  xxv.  31.) 

In  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  which  is  usually  regarded  as  the 
fullest  and  most  correct  exposition  of  the  doctrines  of  Christ, 
angels  are  only  three  times  mentioned,  and  in  none  of  these 
instances  does  the  word  angel  fall  from  the  lips  of  Christ. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  writings  of  St.  Paul,  who  was  deeply 
versed  in  all  the  learning  and  philosophy  of  the  Jews, 
abound  in  allusions  to  angels,  and  according  to  the  usual 
interpretation  of  certain  passages,  he  shows  them  divided  into 


40  OF  ANGELS   AND   AKCHANGELS 

several  classes.  (Rom.  viii.  38 ;  Col.  i.  16 ;  Ephes.  i.  21.) 
St.  Luke,  who  was  the  friend  and  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  some 
say  his  convert,  is  more  direct  and  explicit  on  the  subject 
of  angels  than  any  of  the  other  Evangelists,  and  his  allusions 
to  them  much  more  frequent. 

The  worship  of  angels,  which  the  Jews  brought  from  Chal- 
dea,  was  early  introduced  into  the  Christian  Church.  In  the 
fourth  century  the  council  of  Laodicea  published  a  decree 
against  places  of  worship  dedicated  to  angels  under  names 
which  the  Church  did  not  recognize.  But  neither  warning  nor 
council  seems  to  have  had  power  to  modify  the  popular  creed, 
countenanced  as  it  was  by  high  authority.  All  the  Fathers  are 
unanimous  as  to  the  existence  of  angels  good  and  evil.  They 
hold  that  it  is  evermore  the  allotted  task  of  good  angels  to 
defend  us  against  evil  angels,  and  to  carry  on  a  daily  and 
hourly  combat  against  our  spiritual  foes  :  they  teach  that  the 
good  angels  are  worthy  of  all  reverence  as  the  ministers  of  God 
and  as  the  protectors  of  the  human  race  ;  that  their  intercession 
is  to  be  invoked,  and  their  perpetual,  invisible  presence  to  be 
regarded  as  an  incitement  to  good  and  a  preventive  to  evil. 

This,  however,  was  not  enough.  Taking  for  their  foundation 
a  few  Scripture  texts,  and  in  particular  the  classification  of  St. 
Paul,  the  imaginative  theologians  of  the  middle  ages  ran  into 
all  kinds  of  extravagant  subtleties  regarding  the  being,  the 
nature,  and  the  functions  of  the  different  orders  of  angels. 
Except  as  far  as  they  have  been  taken  as  authorities  in  Art,  I 
shall  set  aside  these  fanciful  disquisitions,  of  which  a  nvere  ab- 
stract would  fill  volumes.  For  our  present  purpose  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  bear  in  mind  that  the  great  theologians  divide  the 
angelic  host  into  three  hierarchies,  and  these  again  into  nine 
choirs,  three  in  each  hierarchy  :  according  to  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  in  the  following  order :  1.  Seraphim,  Cherubim, 
Thrones.  2.  Dominations,  Virtues,  Powers.  3.  Princedoms, 
Archangels,  Angels.  The  order  of  these  denominations  is  not 
the  same  in  all  authorities  :  according  to  the  Greek  formula,  St. 
Bernard,  and  the  Legenda  Aurea,  the  Cherubim  precede  the 
Seraphim,  and  in  the  hymn  of  St.  Ambrose  they  have  also  the 
precedence  —  To  TJiee,  Clierubim  and  Seraphim  continually 
do  cry,  etc.  ;  but  the  authority  of  St.  Dionysius  seems  to  be 
admitted  as  paramount,  for,  according  to  the  legend,  he  was 


ANGELS  41 

the  convert  and  intimate  friend  of  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Paul, 
who  had  been  transported  to  the  seventh  heaven,  had  made 
him  acquainted  with  all  he  had  there  beheld. 

Desire 

In  Dionysius  so  intensely  wrought 
That  he,  as  I  have  done,  ranged  them,  and  named 
Their  orders,  marshalled  in  his  thought  ; 

For  he  had  learned 

Both  this  and  much  beside  of  these  our  orbs 
From  an  eye-witness  to  Heaven's  mysteries. 

Dante,  Par.  28. 

The  first  three  cfioirs  receive  their  glory  immediately  from 
God  and  transmit  it  to  the  second ;  the  second  illuminate  the 
third ;  the  third  are  placed  in  relation  to  the  created  universe 
and  man.  The  first  Hierarchy  are  as  councillors  ;  the  second 
as  governors ;  the  third  as  ministers.  The  Seraphim  are 
absorbed  in  perpetual  love  and  adoration  immediately  round 
the  throne  of  God.  The  Cherubim  know  and  worship.  The 
Thrones  sustain  the  seat  of  the  Most  High.  The  Domina- 
tions, Virtues,  Powers,  are  the  Regents  of  stars  and  elements. 
The  three  last  orders,  Princedoms,  Archangels,  and  Angels, 
are  the  protectors  of  the  great  Monarchies  on  earth,  and  the 
executors  of  the  Avill  of  God  throughout  the  universe. 

The  term  angels  is  properly  applied  to  all  these  celestial 
beings ;  but  it  belongs  especially  to  the  two  last  orders,  who 
are  brought  into  immediate  communication  with  the  human 
race.  The  word  angel,  Greek  in  its  origin,  signifies  a  mes- 
senger, or  more  literally,  a  Irinyer  of  tidings. 

In  this  sense  the  Greeks  entitle  Christ,  "The  great  Angel 
of  the  will  of  God ;  "  and  I  have  seen  Greek  representations 
of  Christ  with  wings  to  His  shoulders.  John  the  Baptist  is 
also  an  angel  in  this  sense ;  likewise  the  Evangelists ;  all  of 
whom,  as  I  shall  show  hereafter,  bear,  as  celestial  messengers, 
the  angel-wings. 

In  ancient  pictures  and  illuminations  which  exhibit  the  glo- 
rification of  the  Trinity,  Christ,  or  the  Virgin,  the  hierarchies 
of  angels  are  represented  in  circles  around  them,  orb  within 
orb.  This  is  called  a  glory  of  angels.  In  pictures  it  is  sel- 
dom complete  :  instead  of  nine  circles,  the  painters  content 
themselves  with  one  or  two  circles  only.  The  innermost 
circles,  the  Seraphim  and  the  Cherubim,  are  in  general  repre- 
sented as  heads  merely,  with  two  or  four  or  six  wings,  and 


42 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


of  a  bright  red  or  blue  color ;  sometimes  with  variegated 
wings,  green,  yellow,  violet,  etc.  This  emblem  —  intended  to 
shadow  forth  to  human  comprehension  a  pure  spirit  glowing 
with  love  and  intelligence,  in  which  all  that  is  bodily  is  put 
away,  and  only  the  head,  the  seat  of  soul,  and  wings,  the 
attribute  of  spirit  and  swiftness,  retained  —  is  of  Greek  origin. 
When  first  adopted  I  do  not  know,  but  I  have  met  with  it  in 
Greek  MSS.  of  the  ninth  century.  Down  to  the  eleventh 
century  the  faces  were  human,  but  not  childish  ;  the  infant 
head  was  afterwards  adopted  to  express  innocence  in  addition 
to  love  and  intelligence. 

Such  was  the  expressive  and  poetical  symbol  which  degen- 
erated in  the  later  periods 
of  Art  into  those  little  fat 
baby  heads,  with  curly  hair 
and  small  wings  under  the 
chin,  which  the  more  they 
resemble  nature  in  color, 
feature,  and  detail,  the 
more  absurd  they  become, 
the  original  meaning  being 
wholly  lost  or  perverted. 

In    painting,    where    a 
glory  of  angels  is  placed 

round  the  Divine  Being  or  the  glorified  Virgin,  those  forming 
the  innermost  circles  are,  or  ought  to  be,  of  a  glowing  red,  the 
color  of  fire,  that  is,  of  love ;  the  next  circle  is  painted  blue, 
the  color  of  the  firmament,  or  light,  that  is,  of  knowledge. 
Now  as  the  word  seraph  is  derived  from  a  Hebrew  root  signi- 
fying love,  and  the  word  cherub  from  a  Hebrew  root  signify- 
ing to  know,  should  not  this  distinction  fix  the  proper  place 
and  name  of  the  first  two  orders  ?  It  is  admitted  that  the 
spirits  v&rich  love  are  nearer  to  God  than  those  which  know, 
since  we  cannot  know  that  which  we  do  not  first  love  ;  that 
Love  and  Knowledge,  "  the  two  halves  of  a  divided  world," 
constitute  in  their  union  the  perfection  of  the  angelic  nature  ; 
but  the  Seraphim,  according  to  the  derivation  of  their  name, 
should  love  most;  their  whole  being  is  fused,  as  it  were,  in  a 
glow  of  adoration  ;  therefore  they  should  take  the  precedence, 
and  their  proper  color  is  red.  The  Cherubim,  "  the  lords  of 
those  that  know,'"'  come  next,  and  are  to  be  painted  blue. 


Cherubs  (Pinturicchio) 


ANGELS  43 

Thus  it  should  seem  that,  in  considering  the  religious  pic- 
tures of  the  early  ages  of  Art,  we  have  to  get  rid  of  certain 
associations  as  to  color  and  form,  derived  from  the  phraseology 
of  later  poets  and  the  representations  of  later  painters.  "  Blue- 
eyed  Seraphim  "  and  the  "  blue  depth  of  Seraph's  eyes  "  are 
not  to  be  thought  of  any  more  than  "  smiling  Cherubim." 
The  Seraphim,  where  distinguished  by  color,  are  red ;  the 
Cherubim  blue  :  the  proper  character,  where  character  is  at- 
tended to,  is,  in  the  Seraph,  adoration ;  in  the  Cherub,  con- 
templation. So  Milton  — 

With  thee  bring 
Him  who  soars  on  golden  wing, 
The  Cherub,  Contemplation. 

I  remember  a  little  Triptyca,  a  genuine  work  of  Fiesole,  in 
which  one  of  the  lateral  compartments  represents  his  favorite 
subject,  the  souls  of  the  blessed  received  into  Paradise.  They 
are  moving  from  the  lower  part  of  the  picture  towards  the 
top,  along  an  ascent  paved  with  flowers,  all  in  white  garments 
and  crowned  with  roses.  At  one  side,  low  down,  stands  a 
blue  Cherub  robed  in  drapery  spangled  with  golden  stars, 
who  seems  to  encourage  the  blessed  group.  Above  are  the 
gates  of  heaven.  Christ  welcomes  to  His  kingdom  the  beati- 
fied spirits,  and  on  each  side  stands  a  Seraph,  all  of  a  glowing 
red,  in  spangled  drapery.  The  figures  are  not  here  merely 
heads  and  wings,  but  full  length,  having  all  that  soft  peculiar 
grace  which  belongs  to  the  painter.1 

In  a  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  (Collection  of  Prince  Waller- 
stein,  Kensington  Palace),  a  glory  of  Seraphim  overarches 
the  principal  group.  Here  the  angelic  beings  are  wholly  of  a 
bright  red  color ;  they  are  human  to  the  waist,  with  hands 
clasped  in  devotion  ;  the  bodies  and  arms  covered  with  plumage, 
but  the  forms  terminating  in  wings ;  all  uniformly  red.  In 
the  same  collection  is  a  small  Greek  picture  of  Christ  receiv- 
ing the  soul  of  the  Virgin ;  over  His  head  hovers  a  large, 
fiery  red,  six-winged  Seraph ;  and  on  each  side  a  Seraph  with 

l  I  know  not  whether  it  be  necessary  to  observe  here,  that  in  early  Art  the 
souls  of  the  blessed  are  not  represented  as  angels,  nor  regarded  as  belonging  to 
this  order  of  spiritual  beings,  though  I  believe  it  is  a  very  common  notion  that 
we  are  to  rise  from  the  dead  with  the  angelic  attributes  as  well  as  the  angelic 
nature.  For  this  belief  there  is  no  warrant  in  Scripture,  unless  Mark  xii.  25 
be  so  interpreted- 


44  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


Part  of  a  Glory  of  Angels  from  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  Ambrogio 
Borgo^none 

hair  and  face  and  limbs  of  glowing  red,  and  with  white  dra- 
peries. Vasari  mentions  an  Adoration  of  the  Magi  by  Liberale 
of  Verona,  in  which  a  group  of  angels,  all  of  a  red  color,  stand 
as  a  celestial  guard  round  the  Virgin  and  her  divine  Infant. 

The  distinction  of  hue  in  the  red  and  blue  angels  we  find 
wholly  omitted  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Cherubim  with  blue,  red,  green,  and  variegated  Avings  we  find 
in  the  pictures  of  Perugino  and  other  masters  in  the  be- 


ANGELS  45 

ginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  also  in  early  pictures  .of 
Raphael.  Liberale  of  Verona  has  given  us,  in  a  Madonna 
picture,  Cherub  heads  without  wings,  and  of  a  blue  color, 
emerging  from  golden  clouds.  And  in  Raphael's  Madonna  di 
San  Sisto  [Dresden],  the  whole  background  is  formed  of  Cheru- 
bim and  Seraphim  of  a  uniform  delicate  bluish  tinge,  as  if 
composed  of  air,  and  melting  away  into  an  abyss  of  golden 
glory,  the  principal  figures  standing  relieved  against  this  flood 
of  living  love  and  light  —  beautiful!  So  are  the  Cherubim 
with  many -colored  wings,  which  float  in  the  firmament  in 
Perugino's  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  ;  but  none  of  these  can 
be  regarded  as  so  theologically  correct  as  the  fiery  red  and 
bright  blue  Seraphim  and  Cherubim  of  which  are  formed  the 
hierarchies  and  glories  which  figure  in  the  early  pictures,  the 
stained  glass,  the  painted  sculpture,  and  the  illuminated  MSS. 
from  the  tenth  to  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  next  five  choirs  of  angels,  the  Thrones,  Dominations, 
Princedoms,  Virtues,  Powers,  though  classed  and  described 
with  great  exactitude  by  the  theologians,  have  not  been  very 
accurately  discriminated  in  Art.  In  some  examples  the 
Thrones  have  green  wings,  a  fiery  aureole,  and  bear  a  throne 
in  their  hands.  The  Dominations,  Virtues,  and  Powers  some- 
times bear  a  globe  and  a  long  sceptre  surmounted  by  a  cross. 
The  Principalities,  according  to  the  Greek  formula,  should 
bear  a  branch  of  lily.  The  Archangels  are  figured  as  warriors, 
and  carry  a  sword  with  the  point  upwards.  The  angels  are 
robed  as  deacons,  and  carry  a  wand.  In  one  of  the  ancient 
frescoes  in  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto  there  is  a  complete 
hierarchy  of  angels,  so  arranged  as  to  symbolize  the  Trinity, 
each  of  the  nii^e  choirs  being  composed  of  three  angels,  but 
the  Seraphim  only  are  distinguished  by  their  red  color  and 
priority  of  place.  In  the  south  porch  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Chartres,  each  of  the  nine  orders  is  represented  by  two  angels ; 
in  other  instances,  one  angel  only  represents  the  order  to  which 
he  belongs,  and  nine  angels  represent  the  whole  hierarchy.  I 
saw  in  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of  ^Norwich  an  elegant  little 
bas-relief  in  alabaster,  exhibiting  the  nine  choirs,  each  repre- 
sented by  a  single  angel.  The  first  (the  Seraphim)  hold  the 
sacramental  cup  ;  the  Cherubim,  a  book ;  the  Thrones,  a 
throne  ;  the  Principalities,  a  bunch  of  lilies ;  the  Archangels 
are  armed.  The  other  attributes  are  not  clearly  made  out, 


46  OF  ANGELS   AND   AECH ANGELS 

The  figures  have  been  ornamented  with  painting  and  gilding, 
now  partially  worn  off;  and  the  style  is  of  the  early  part  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  It  appeared  to  me  to  have  formed  one 
of  the  compartments  of  an  altar-piece.  Where,  however,  we 
meet  with  groups  or  rows  of  angels,  as  in  the  Greek  mosaics 
and  the  earliest  frescoes,  all  alike,  all  with  the  tiara,  the  long 
sceptre-like  wands,  and  the  orb  of  sovereignty,  I  believe  these 
to  represent  the  Powers  and  Princedoms  of  Heaven.  The 
Archangels  alone,  as  we  shall  see  presently,  have  distinct  indi- 
vidual names  and  attributes  assigned  to  them. 

The  angels  generally  have  the  human  form ;  are  winged ; 
and  are  endowed  with  immutable  happiness  and  perpetual 
youth,  because  they  are  ever  in  the  presence  of  Him  with 
whom  there  is  no  change  and  no  time.  They  are  direct 
emanations  of  the  beauty  of  the  Eternal  mind,  therefore  beau- 
tiful ;  created,  therefore,  not  eternal,  but  created  perfect,  and 
immortal  in  their  perfection.  They  are  always  supposed  to  be 
masculine ;  perhaps  for  the  reason  so  beautifully  assigned  by 
Madame  de  Stael,  "  because  the  union  of  power  with  purity 
(la  force  avec  la  puretej  constitutes  all  that  we  mortals  can 
imagine  of  perfection."  There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  old 
angel,  and  therefore  there  ought  to  be  no  such  thing  as  an 
infant  angel.  The  introduction  of  infant  angels  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  the  custom  of  representing  the  regenerate 
souls  of  men  as  new-born  infants,  and  perhaps  also  from  the 
words  of  our  Saviour  when  speaking  of  children,  "  I  say  unto 
you,  their  angels  do  always  behold  the  face  of  my  Father 
which  is  in  heaven."  Such  representations,  when  religiously 
and  poetically  treated  as  spirits  of  love,  intelligence,  and  in- 
nocence, are  of  exquisite  beauty,  and  have  a  significance  which 
charms  and  elevates  the  fancy  ;  but  from  this,  the  true  and 
religious  conception,  the  Italian  putti  and  puttini  and  the 
rosy  chubby  babies  of  the  Flemish  school  are  equally  remote. 

In  early  Art,  the  angels  in  the  bloom  of  adolescence  are 
always  amply  draped ;  at  first,  in  the  classical  tunic  and  pal- 
lium ;  afterwards  in  long  linen  vestments  with  the  alba  and 
stole,  as  levites  or  deacons ;  or  as  princes,  with  embroidered 
robes  and  sandals,  and  jewelled  crowns  or  fillets.  Such  figures 
are  common  in  the  Byzantine  mosaics  and  pictures.  The  ex- 
pression, in  these  early  representations,  is  usually  calm  and 
impassive.  Angels  partially  draped  in  loose,  fluttering,  mere- 


ANGELS 


47 


tricious  attire,  poised  in  attitudes  upon  clouds,  or  with  features 
animated  by  human  passion,  or  limbs  strained  by  human 
effort,  are  the  innovations  of  more  modern  Art.  White  is,  or 
ought  to  be,  the  prevailing  color  in  angelic  draperies,  but  red 
and  blue  of  various  shades  are  more  frequent.  Green  often 
occurs  ;  and  in  the  Venetian  pictures,  yellow,  or  rather  saffron- 


Assyrian  Winged  Genius 

colored  robes  are  not  unfrequent.  In  the  best  examples  of 
Italian  Art,  the  tints,  though  varied,  are  tender  and  delicate ; 
all  dark,  heavy  colors  and  violent  contrasts  of  color  are  avoided. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  early  German  school  the  angels  have 
rich,  heavy  voluminous  draperies  of  the  most  intense  and  vivid 
colors,  ofte^n  jewelled  and  embroidered  with  gold.  •  Flight,  in 
such  garments,  seems  as  difficult  as  it  would  be  to  swim  in 
coronation  robes. 

But,  whatever  be  the  treatment  as  to  character,  lineaments, 
or  dress,   wings   are  almost    invariably  the    attribute   of  the 


48  OF  ANGELS  AND   ARCHANGELS 

angelic  form.  As  emblematical  appendages,  these  are  not 
merely  significant  of  the  character  of  celestial  messengers,  for, 
from  time  immemorial,  wings  have  been  the  Oriental  and 
Egyptian  symbol  of  power,  as  well  as  of  swiftness ;  of  the 
spiritual  and  aerial,  in  contradistinction  to  -the  human  and 
the  earthly.  Thus,  with  the  Egyptians,  the  winged  globe 
signified  power  and  eternity,  that  is,  the  Godhead ;  a  bird, 
with  a  human  head  signified  the  soul ;  and  nondescript  crea- 
tures with  wings  abound  not  only  in  the  Egyptian  paintings 
and  hieroglyphics,  but  also  in  the  Chaldaic  and  Babylonian 
remains,  in  the  Lycian  and  Nineveh  marbles,  and  on  the  gems 
and  other  relics  of  the  Gnostics.  I  have  seen  on  the  Gnostic 
gems  figures  with  four  wings,  two  springing  from  the  shoulders 
and  two  from  the  loins.  This  portentous  figure,  from  the 
ruins  of  Nineveh,  is  similarly  constructed  [p.  47]. 

In  Etruscan  Art  all  their  divinities  are  winged  ;  and  where 
Venus  is  represented  with  wings,  as  in  many  of  the  antique 
gems  (and  by  Correggio  in  imitation  of  them,  as  in  the  pic- 
ture called  Mercury  Instructing  Cupid,  National  Gallery), 
these  brilliant  wings  are  not,  as  some  have  supposed,  emblem- 
atical of  the  transitoriness,  but  of  the  might,  the  majesty, 
and  the  essential  divinity  of  beauty.  In  Scripture,  the  first 
mention  of  Cherubim  with  wings  is  immediately  after  the 
departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  (Exod.  xxxi.  2). 
Bezaleel,  the  first  artist  whose  name  is  recorded  in  the  world's 
history,  and  who  appears  to  have  been,  like  the  greatest  artists 
of  modern  times,  at  once  architect,  sculptor,  and  painter,  prob- 
ably derived  his  figures  of  Cherubim  with  outstretched  wings, 
guarding  the  mercy-seat,  from  those  Egyptian  works  of  Art 
with  which  the  Israelites  must  have  been  familiarized.  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  is  so  aware  of  the  relative  similitude,  that 
he  supposes  the  Egyptians  to  have  borrowed  from  the  Israelites, 
which  is  obviously  the  reverse  of  the  truth.  How  far  the 
Cherubim  which  figure  in  the  Biblical  pictures  of  the  present 
day  resemble  the  carved  Cherubim  of  Bezaleel,  we  cannot  tell, 
but  probably  the  idea  and  the  leading  forms  are  the  same :  for 
the  ark,  we  know,  was  carried  into  Palestine ;  these  original 
Cherubim  were  the  pattern  of  those  which  adorned  the  temple 
of  Solomon,  and  these,  again,  were  the  prototype  after  which 
the  imagery  of  the  second  temple  was  fashioned.  Although 
in  Scripture  the  shape  under  which  the  celestial  ministers 


ANGELS 


49 


appeared  to  man  is  nowhere  described,  except  in  the  visions 
of  the  prophets  (Dan.  x.  5),  and  there  with  a  sort  of  dreamy 
incoherent  splendor,  rendering  it  most  perilous  to  clothe  the 
image  placed  before  the  fancy  in  definite  forms,  still  the  idea 
of  wings,  as  the  angelic  appendages,  is  conveyed  in  many  places 
distinctly,  and  occasionally  with 
a  picturesque  vividness  which 
inspires  and  assists  the  artist. 
For  instance,  in  Daniel,  *ch.  vii., 
"  they  had  wings  like  a  fowl." 
In  Ezekiel,  ch.  i.,  "  their  wings 
were  stretched  upward  when  they 
flew ;  when  they  stood  they  let 
down  their  wings  ;  "  "  I  heard 
the  noise  of  their  wings  as  the 
noise  of  great  waters ;  "  and  in 
Zechariah,  ch.  v.,  "  I  looked, 
and  behold  there  came  out  two 
women,  and  the  wind  was  in 
their  wings,  for  they  had  wings 
like  the  wings  of  a  stork."  And 
Isaiah,  ch.  vi.,  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Seraphim,  "Each 
one  had  six  wings  ;  with  twain 
he  covered  his  face,  and  with 
twain  he  covered  his  feet,  and 
with  twain  he  did  fly."  By 
the  early  artists  this  description 
was  followed  out  in  a  manner 
more  conscientious  and  rever- 
ential than  poetical. 

They  were  content  with  a  symbol.      But  mark  how  Milton, 
more  daring,  could  paint  from  the  same  original :  — 

A  seraph  winged  ;  six  wings  he  wore  to  shade 
His  lineaments  divine  :  the  pair  that  clad 
Each  shoulder  broad,  came  mantling  o'er  his  breast 
With  regal  ornament  ;  the  middle  pair 
Girt  like  a  starry  zone  his  waist,  and  round 
Skirted  his  loins  and  thighs  with  downy  gold 
And  colors  dipped  in  heaven  ;  the  third  his  feet 
Shadowed  from  either  heel  with  feathered  mail, 
Sky-tinctured  grain. 


Cherub  (from  early  MS.) 


.50  OF  ANGELS  AND  AECH ANGELS 

I  have  sometimes  thought  that  Milton,  in  his  descriptions 
of  angels,  was  not  indebted  merely  to  the  notions  of  the  old 
theological  writers,  interpreted  and  embellished  by  his  own 
fancy:  may  he  not,  in  his  wanderings  through  Italy,  have 
beheld  with  kindling  sympathy  some  of  those  glorious  creations 
of  Italian  Art  which,  when  I  saw  them,  made  me  break  out 
into  his  own  divine  language  as  the  only  fit  utterance  to 
express  those  forms  in  words  ?  —  But  to  return :  Is  it  not  a 
mistake  to  make  the  wings,  the  feathered  appendages  of  the 
angelic  form,  as  like  as  possible  to  real  wings  —  the  wings  of 
storks,  or  the  wings  of  swans,  or  herons,  borrowed  for  the 
occasion  ?  Some  modern  painters,  anxious  to  make  wings  look 
"  natural,"  have  done  this ;  Delaroche,  for  instance,  in  his  St. 
Cecilia.  Infinitely  more  beautiful  and  consistent  are  the  non- 
descript wings  which  the  early  painters  gave  their  angels :  — 
large  —  so  large,  that  when  the  glorious  creature  is  represented 
as  at  rest,  they  droop  from  the  shoulders  to  the  ground  ;  with 
long  slender  feathers,  eyed  sometimes  like  the  peacock's  train, 
bedropped  with  gold  like  the  pheasant's  breast,  tinted  with 
azure  and  violet  and  crimson,  "  colors  dipped  in  heaven,"  — 
they  are  really  angel-wings,  not  bird-wings. 

[The]  angels  in  the  Campo  Santo  are,  in  this  respect,  pe- 
culiarly poetical.  Their  extremities  are  wings  instead  of  limbs  ; 
and  in  a  few  of  the  old  Italian  and  German  painters  of  .the 
fifteenth  century  we  find  angels  whose  extremities  are  formed 
of  light  waving  folds  of  pale  rose-color  or  azure  drapery,  or  of 
a  sort  of  vapory  cloud,  or,  in  some  instances,  of  flames.  The 
cherubim  and  seraphim  which  surround  the  similitude 'of  Je- 
hovah, when  He  appears  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush  (Vatican  : 
Raphael's  fresco),  are  an  example  of  the  sublime  and  poetical 
significance  which  may  be  given  to  this  kind  of  treatment. 
They  have  heads  and  human  features  marvellous  for  intelli- 
gence and  beauty  ;  their  hair,  their  wings,  their  limbs,  end  in 
lambent  fires;  they  are  "  celestial  Ardors  bright,"  which  seem- 
to  have  being  without  shape. 

Dante's  angels  have  less  of  dramatic  reality,  less  of  the 
aggrandized  and  idealized  human  presence,  than  Milton's. 
( Vide  Purg.  c.  viii.  35 ;  Par.  c.  xxxi. ;  Purg.  c.  xxiv.  140.) 
They  are  wondrous  creatures.  Some  of  them  have  the  quaint 
fantastic  picturesqueness  of  old  Italian  Art  and  the  Albert 
Diirer  school ;  for  instance,  those  in  the  Purgatorio,  with  their 


ANGELS  51 

wings  of  a  bright  green,  and  their  green  draperies,  "  verde  come 
fogliette,"  kept  in  a  perpetual  state  of  undulation  by  the  breeze 
created  by  the  fanning  of  their  wings,  with  features  too  daz- 
zling to  be  distinguished :  — ~ 

Ben  discerneva  in  lor  la  testa  bionda, 
Ma  nelle  facce  P  occhio  si  smarria 
Come  virtu  ch'  a  troppo  si  confonda. 

[In  Gary's  translation  :  — 

Well  I  descried  the  whiteness  on  their  heads  ; 
But  in  their  visages  the  dazzled  eye 
Was  lost,  as  faculty  that  by  too  much 
Is  overpower'd.] 

And  the  Shape,  glowing  red  as  in'a  furnace,  with  an  air  from 
the  fanning  of  its  wings,  "  fresh  as  the  first  breath  of  wind  in 
a  May  morning,  and  fragrant  as  all  its  flowers."  That  these 
and  other  passages  scattered  through  the  Purgatorio  and  the 
Paradiso  assisted  the  fancy  of  the  earlier  painters  in  portray- 
ing their  angelic  Glories  and  winged  Beatitudes,  I  have  little 
doubt ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sublime  angel  in  the  In- 
ferno —  he  who  conies  speeding  over  the  waters  with  vast 
pinions  like  sails,  sweeping  the  evil  spirits  in  heaps  before 
him,  "  like  frogs  before  a  serpent,"  and  with  a  touch  of  his 
wand  making  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Dis  fly  open  ;  then,  with 
a  countenance  solemn  and  majestic,  and  quite  unmindful  of  his 
worshipper,  as  one  occupied  by  higher  matters,  turning  and 
soaring  away,  —  this  is  quite  in  the  sentiment  of  the  grand  old 
Greek  and  Italian  mosaics,  which  preceded  Dante  by  some 
centuries.  The  Cherubim  in  the  upper  lights  of  the  painted 
windows  at  St.  Michael's,  Coventry,  and  at  Cirencester,  are 
represented  each  standing  on  a  white  wheel  with  eight  spokes. 
They  have  six  wings,  of  peacocks'  feathers,  of  a  rich  yellow 
color.  A  white  cross  surmounts  the  forehead,  and  both  arms 
and  legs  are  covered  with  short  plumage.  The  extremities  are 
human  and  bare.  At  Cirencester  the  Cherubim  hold  a  book, 
at  Coventry  a  scroll. 

But  besides  being  the  winged  messengers  of  God  to  man,  the 
deputed  regents  of  the  stars,  the  rulers  of  the  elements,  and 
the  dispensers  of  the  fate  of  nations,  angels  have  another  func- 
tion in  which  we  love  to  contemplate  them.  They  are  the 
choristers  of  heaven.  Theirs  is  the  privilege  to  sound  that 


52 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


hymn  of  praise  which  goes  up  from  this  boundless  and  har- 
monious universe  of  suns  and  stars  and  worlds  and  rejoicing 
creatures,  towards  the  God  who  created  them  :  theirs  is  the 
music  of  the  spheres  — 

They  sing,  and  singing  in  their  glory  move, 

they  tune  divine  instruments,  named  after  those  of  earth's 
harmonies  — 

The  harp,  the  solemn  pipe 
And  dulcimer,  all  organs  of  sweet  stop, 
All  sounds  on  fret  by  string  or  golden  wire, 

And  with  songs 

And  choral  symphonies,  day  without  night, 
Circle  his  throne  rejoicing. 

[Par.  Lost,  book  vii.  595.] 

There  is  nothing  more  beautiful,  more  attractive,  in  Art 
than  the  representations  of  angels  in  this  character.  Some- 
times they  form  a  chorus  round 
the.glorified  Saviour,  when,  after 
His  sorrow  and  sacrifice  on 
earth,  He  takes  His  throne  in 
heaven ;  or,  when  the  crown  is 
placed  on  the  head  of  the  Ma- 
ternal Virgin  in  glory,  pour 
forth  their  triumphant  song,  and 
sound  their  silver  clarions  on 
high  :  sometimes  they  stand  or 
kneel  before  the  Madonna  and 
Child,  or  sit  upon  the  steps 
of  her  throne,  singing,  —  with 
such  sweet  earnest  faces !  or 
playing  on  their  golden  lutes, 
or  piping  celestial  symphonies ; 
or  they  bend  in  a  choir  from 
the  opening  heavens  above,  and  welcome,  with  triumphant 
songs,  the  liberated  soul  of  the  saint  or  martyr ;  or  join  in  St. 
Cecilia's  hymn  of  praise  :  but  whatever  the  scene,  in  these  and 
similar  representations,  they  appear  in  their  natural  place  and 
vocation,  and  harmonize  enchantingly  with  all  our  feelings 
and  fancies  relative  to  these  angelic  beings,  made  up  of  love 
and  music. 


Angel  (Bellini) 


ANGELS 


53 


Angel  (Melozzo  da  Forll) 


Most  beautiful  ex- 
amples of  this  treat- 
ment occur  both  in 
early  painting  and 
sculpture  ;  and  no  one 
who  has  wandered 
through  churches  and 
galleries,  with  feeling 
and  observation  awake, 
can  fail  to  remember 
such.  It  struck  me  as 
characteristic  of  the 
Venetian  school,  that 
the  love  of  music 
seemed  to  combine 
with  the  sense  of  har- 
mony in  color ;  no- 
where have  I  seen  musical  angels  so  frequently  and  so  beau- 
tifully introduced  :  and  whefeas  the  angelic  choirs  of  Fiesole, 
Ghirlandajo,  and  Kaphael  seem  to  be  playing  as  an  act  of 
homage  for  the  delight  of  the  Divine  Personages,  those  of 
Vivarini  and  Bellini  and  Palma  appear  as  if  enchanted  by 
their  own  music  ;  and  both  together  are  united  in  the  grand 
and  beautiful  angels  of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  particularly  in  one 
who  is  bending  over  a  lute,  and  another  who  with  a  triumphant 
and  ecstatic  expression  strikes  the  cymbals.  (Sacristy  of  St. 
Peter's,  Rome.)  Compare  the  cherubic  host  who  are  pouring 
forth  their  hymns  of  triumph,  blowing  their  uplifted  trumpets, 
and  touching  immortal  harps  and  viols  in  Angelico's  "  Corona- 
tion "  (in  the  Louvre),  or  in  Signorelli's  "  Paradiso  "  (in  the 
cathedral  at  Orvieto),  with  those  lovely  Venetian  choristers, 
the  piping  boys,  myrtle-crowned,  who  are  hymning  Bellini's 
Madonna  (in  the  Frari  at  Venice),  or  those  who  are  touching 
the  lute  to  the  praise  and  glory  of  St.  Ambrose  in  Vivarini's 
most  beautiful  picture  [in  the  Frari,  Venice]  ;  you  will  feel 
immediately  the  distinction  in  point  of  sentiment. 

The  procession  of  chanting  angels  which  once  surmounted 
the  organ  in  the  Duomo  of  Florence  is  a  perfect  example  of 
musical  angels  applied  to  the  purpose  of  decoration.  Perhaps 
it  was  well  to  remove  this  exquisite  work  of  art  to  a  place  of 
safety,  where  it  can  be  admired  and  studied  as  a  work  of  art ; 


54  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

but  the  removal  has  taken  from  it  the  appropriate  expression. 
How  they  sing !  —  when  the  tones  of  the  organ  burst  forth, 
we  might  have  fancied  we  heard  their  divine  voices  through 
the  stream  of  sound !  The  exquisite  little  bronze  choristers 
round  the  high  altar  of  St.  Antonio  in  Padua  are  another 
example  ;  Florentine  in  elegance  of  form,  Venetian  in  senti- 
ment, intent  upon  their  own  sweet  song. 

There  is  a  third  function  ascribed  to  these  angelic  natures, 
which  brings  them  even  nearer  to  our  sympathies ;  they  are 
the  deputed  guardians  of  the  just  and  innocent.  St.  Raphael, 
whose  story  I  shall  presently  relate,  is  the  prince  of  the  guar- 
dian angels.  The  Jews  held  that  the  angels  deputed  to  Lot 
were  his  guardian  angels  (Gen.  xviii.,  xlviii.  16).  The  fathers 
of  the  Christian  Church  taught  that  every  human  being,  from 
the  hour  of  his  birth  to  that  of  his  death,  is  accompanied  by 
an  angel  appointed  to  watch  over  him.  The  Mahometans  give 
to  each  of  us  a  good  and  an  evil  angel ;  but  the  early  Chris- 
tians supposed  us  to  be  attended  each  by  a  good  angel  only, 
who  undertakes  that  office,  not  merely  from  duty  to  God,  and 
out  of  obedience  and  great  humility,  but  as  inspired  by  exceed- 
ing charity  and  love  towards  his  human  charge.  It  would 
require  the  tongues  of  angels  themselves  to  recite  all  that  we 
owe  to  these  benign  and  vigilant  guardians.  They  watch  by 
the  cradle  of  the  new-born  babe,  and  spread  their  celestial 
wings  round  the  tottering  "steps  of  infancy.  If  the  path  of 
life  be  difficult  and  thorny,  and  evil  spirits  work  us  shame  and 
woe,  they  sustain  us ;  they  bear  the  voice  of  our  complaining, 
of  our  supplication,  of  our  repentance,  up  to  the  foot  of  God's 
throne,  and  bring  us  back  in  return  a  pitying  benediction,  to 
strengthen  and  to  cheer.  When  passion  and  temptation  strive 
for  the  mastery,  they  encourage  us  to  resist ;  when  we  conquer, 
they  crown  us ;  when  we  falter  and  fail,  they  compassionate 
and  grieve  over  us ;  when  we  are  obstinate  in  polluting  our 
own  souls,  and  perverted  not  only  in  act  but  in  will,  they 
leave  us  —  and  woe  to  them  that  are  so  left !  But  the  good 
angel  does  not  quit  his  charge  until  his  protection  is  despised, 
rejected,  and  utterly  repudiated.  Wonderful,  the  fervor  of 
their  love  —  Avonderful  their  meekness  and  patience  —  who 
endure  from  day  to  day  the  spectacle  of  the  unveiled  human 
heart  with  all  its  miserable  weaknesses  and  vanities,  its  inordi- 


ANGELS 


55 


nate  desires  and  selfish  purposes  !  Constant  to  us  in  death, 
they  contend  against  the  powers  of  darkness  for  the  emanci- 
pated spirit ;  they  even  visit  the  suffering  sinner  in  purgatory  ; 
they  keep  alive  in  the  tormented  spirit  faith  and  hope,  and 


»;'•* 


Angel  (Melozzo  da  Forll) 


remind  him  that  the  term  of  expiation  will  end  at  last.  So 
])ante  (Purg.  c.  viii.)  represents  the  souls  in  purgatory  as  com- 
forted in  their  misery ;  and  (which  has  always  seemed  to  me  a 
touch  of  sublime  truth  and  tenderness)  as  rejoicing  over  those 
who  were  on  earth  conspicuoiis  for  the  very  virtues  wherein 
themselves  were  deficient.  When  at  length  the  repentant 


56  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

• 

soul  is  sufficiently  purified,  the  guardian  angel  bears  it  to  the 
bosom  of  the  Saviour. 

The  earlier  painters  and  sculptors  did  not,  apparently,  make 
the  same  use  of  guardian  angels  that  we  so  often  meet  with  in 
works  of  Modern  Art.  Poetical  allegories  of  angels  guiding 
the  steps  of  childhood,  extending  a  shield  over  innocence, 
watching  by  a  sick-bed,  do  not,  I  think,  occur  before  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  at  least  I  have  not  met  with  such.  The 
ancient  masters,  who  really  believed  in  the  personal  agency  of 
our  angelic  guardians,  beheld  them  with  awe  and  reverence, 
and  reserved  their  presence  for  great  and  solemn  occasions. 
The  angel  who  presents  the  pious  votary  to  Christ  or  the 
Virgin,  who  crowns  St.  Cecilia  and  St.  Valerian  after  their 
conquest  over  human  weakness ;  the  angel  who  cleaves  the  air 
"  with  flight  precipitant "  to  break  the  implements  of  torture, 
or  to  extend  the  palm  to  the  dying  martyr,  victorious  over 
pain ;  the  angels  who  assist  and  carry  in  their  arms  the  souls 
of  the  just,  — are,  in  these  and  all  similar  examples,  represen- 
tations of  guardian  angels. 

Such,  then,  are  the  three  great  functions  of  the  angelic  host ; 
they  are  Messengers,  Choristers,  and  Guardians.  But  angels, 
without  reference  to  their  individuality  or  their  ministry,  — 
with  regard  only  to  their  species  and  their  form,  as  the  most 
beautiful  and  the  most  elevated  of  created  essences,  as  interme- 
diate between  heaven  and  earth,  —  are  introduced  into  all 
works  of  Art  which  have  a  sacred  purpose  or  character,  and 
must  be  considered  not  merely  as  decorative  accessories,  but 
as  a  kind  of  presence,  as  attendant  witnesses  ;  and,  like  the 
chorus  in  the  Greek  tragedies,  looking  on  where  they  are  not 
actors.  In  architectural  decoration,  the  cherubim  with  which 
Solomon  adorned  his  temple  have  been  the  authority  and 
example  (1  Kings  vi.  23).  "Within  the  oracle  he  made  two 
cherubims,  each  ten  cubits  high,  and  with  wings  five  cubits  in 
length  "  (the  angels  in  the  old  Christian  churches  on  each  side 
of  the  altar  correspond  with  these  cherubim),  "and  he  overlaid 
the  cherubims  with  gold,  and  carved  all  the  Avails  of  the  house 
with  carved  figures  of  cherubims,  and  he  made  doors  of  olive 
tree,  and  he  carved  on  them  figures  of  cherubims."  So,  in 
Christian  art  and  architecture,  angels,  Avith  their  beautiful 
cinctured  heads  and  outstretched  wings  and  floAving  draperies, 


ANGELS 


57 


fill  up  every  space.  The  instances  are  so  numerous  that  they 
will  occur  to  every  one  who  has  given  a  thought  to  the  subject. 
I  may  mention  the  frieze  of  angels  in  Henry  the  Seventh's 
Chapel  [Westminster  Abbey],  merely  as  an  example  at  hand, 
and  which  can  be  referred  to  at  any  moment ;  also  the  angels 
round  the  choir  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  of  which  there  are  fine 
casts  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham  ;  and  in  some  of  the 
old  churches  in  Saxony  which  clearly  exhibit  the  influence  of 
Byzantine  Art  —  for  instance,  at  Freyburg,  Mersebtirg,  Naurn- 
burg  —  angels  with  outspread  wings  fill  up  the  spandrils  of 
the  arches  along  the  nave. 

But  in  the  best  ages  of  Art  angels  were  not  merely  em- 
ployed as  decorative  accessories ;    they  had  their  appropriate 
place  and  a  solemn   significance 
as  a  part  of  that  theological  sys- 
tem which  the  edifice,  as  a  whole, 
represented. 

As  a  celestial  host  surround- 
ing the  throne  of  the  Trinity, 
or  of  Christ  as  redeemer  or  as 
judge,  or  of  the  Virgin  in  glory, 
or  the  throned  Madonna  and 
Child,  their  place  is  immedi- 
ajtely  next  to  the  Divine  Person- 
ages and  before  the  Evangelists. 

In  what  is  called  a  Liturgy 
of  Angels,  they  figure  in  pro- 
cession on  each  side  of  the  choir, 
so  as  to  have  the  appearance  of 
approaching  the  altar;  they  wear 
the  stole  and  alba  as  deacons,  and 
bear  the  implements  of  the  mass. 
In  the  Cathedral  of  Rheims  there 
is  a  range  of  colossal  angels  as  a 
grand  procession  along  the  vaults 
of  the  nave,  who  appear  as  ap- 
proaching the  altar  :  these  bear 

not  only  the  gospel,  the  missal,  the  sacramental  cup,  the  ewer, 
the  taper,  the  cross,  etc.,  but  also  the  attributes  of  sovereignty, 
celestial  and  terrestrial :  one  carries  the  sun,  another  the  moon, 
a  third  the  kingly  sceptre,  a  fourth  the  globe,  a  fifth  the 


Angel  bearing  the  Moon 
(Greek,  12th  century) 


58  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

sword  ;  and  all  these,  as  they  approach  the  sanctuary,  they 
seem  about  to  place  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  who  stands  there  as 
priest  and  king  in  glory.  Statues  of  angels  in  an  attitude 
of  worship  on  each  side  of  the  altar,  as  if  adoring  the  sacrifice 
—  or  hearing  in  triumph  the  instruments  of  Christ's  pas- 
sion, the  cross,  the  nails,  the  spear,  the  crown  of  thorns  —  or 
carrying  tapers  —  are  more  common,  and  must  he  regarded 
not  merely  as  decoration,  but  as  a  presence  in  the  high  solem- 
nity. 

In  the  Cathedral  of  Auxerre  may  be  seen  angels  attending 
on  the  triumphant  coming  of  Christ ;  and,  which  is  most  sin- 
gular, they,  as  well  as  Christ,  are  on  horseback. 

When,  in  subjects  from  Scripture  history,  angels  figure  not 
merely  as  attendants  and  spectators,  but  as  personages  neces- 
sary to  the  action,  they  are  either  ministers  of  the  divine 
wrath  or  of  the  divine  mercy ;  agents  of  destruction,  or  agents 
of  help  and  good  counsel.  As  all  these  instances  belong  to 
the  historical  scenes  of  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament,  they 
will  be  considered  separately,  and  I  shall  confine  myself  here 
to  a  few  remarks  on  the  introduction  and  treatment  of  angels 
in  some  subjects  of  peculiar  interest. 
* 

In  relating  "the  expulsion  of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Para- 
dise," it  is  not  said  that  an  angel  was  the  immediate  agent  of 
the  divine  wrath,  but  it  is  so  represented  in  works  of  Art.  In 
the  most  ancient  treatment  I  have  met  with  (MS.  10th  century, 
Paris,  Bibl.  Nationale),  a  majestic  armed  angel  drives  forth 
the  delinquents,  and  a  cherub  with  six  wings  stands  as  guard 
before  the  gate.  I  found  the  same  motif  in  the  sculptures  on 
the  facade  of  the  Duomo  at  Orvieto.  In  another  instance,  an 
ancient  Saxon  miniature,  the  angel  is  represented  not  as  driving 
them  forth,  but  closing  the  door  against  them.  But  these  are 
exceptions  to  the  usual  mode  of  treatment,  which  seldom  varies  ; 
the  angel  is  not  represented  in  wrath,  but  calm,  and  stretches 
forth  a  sword  which  is  often  (literally  rendering  the  text)  a 
waving,  lambent  flame.  I  remember  an  instance  in  which  the 
preternatural  sword,  "  turning  every  way,"  has  the  form  of  a 
wheel  of  flames. 

An  angel  is  expressly  introduced  as  a  minister  of  wrath  in 
the  story  of  Balaam,  in  which  I  have  seen  no  deviation  from 
the  obvious  prosaic  treatment,  rendering  the  text  literally  ? 


ANGELS  59 


Expulsion  from  Paradise  (Bas-relief,  Orvieto) 

"  And  the  ass,saw  the  angel  of  the  Lord  standing  in  the  way, 
and  his  sword  drawn  in  his  hand." 

"The  destroying  angel,  leaning  from  heaven,  presents  to 
David  three  arrows,  from  which  to  choose,  —  war,  pestilence, 
or  famine."  I  have  found  this  subject  beautifully  executed 
in  several  MSS.,  for  instance,  in  the  "  Heures  d'Anne  de 
Bretagne ;  "  also  in  pictures  and  in  prints. 

"  The  destroying  angel  sent  to  chastise  the  arrogance  of 
David  is  beheld  standing  between  heaven  and  earth  with 
his  sword  stretched  over  Jerusalem  to  destroy  it."  Of  this 
sublime  vision  I  have  never  seen  any  but  the  meanest  repre- 
sentations ;  none  of  the  great  masters  have  treated  it ;  perhaps 
Rembrandt  might  have  given  us  the  terrible  and  glorious 
angel  standing  like  a  shadow  in  the  midst  of  his  own  intense 
irradiation.  David  fallen  on  his  face,  and  the  sons  of  Oman 
hiding  themselves  by  their  rude  threshing-floor,  with  that 
wild  mixture  of  the  familiar  and  the  unearthly  in  which  he 
alone  has  succeeded. 

"  The  chastisement  of  Heliodorus "  has  given  occasion  to 
the  sublimest  composition  in  which  human  genius  ever  at- 
tempted to  embody  the  conception  of  the  supernatural,  — 
Raphael's  fresco  in  the  Vatican.  St.  Michael,  the  protecting 


,  60  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

angel  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
minister  of  divine  wrath  on  this  occasion ;  but  Raphael,  in 
omitting  the  wings,  and  all  exaggeration  or  alteration  of  the 
human  figure,  has  shown  how  unnecessary  it  was  for  him  to 
have  recourse  to  the  prodigious  and  impossible  in  form,  in 
order  to  give  the  supernatural  in  sentiment.  The  unearthly 
warrior  and  his  unearthly  steed  —  the  weapon  in  his  hand, 
which  is  not  a  sword  to  pierce,  nor  a  club  to  strike,  but  a  sort 
of  mace,  of  which,  as  it  seems,  a  touch  would  annihilate ;  the 
two  attendant  spirits,  who  come  gliding  above  the  marble 
floor,  with  their  hair  streaming  back  with  the  rapidity  of  their 
aerial  motion  —  are  in  the  very  spirit  of  Dante,  and,  as  concep- 
tions of  superhuman  power,  superior  to  anything  in  pictured 
form  which  Art  has  bequeathed  to  us. 

In  calling  to  mind  the  various  representations  of  the  angels 
of  the  Apocalypse  let  loose  for  destruction,  one  is  tempted  to 
e$claim,  "  Oh,  for  a  warning  voice  !  "  When  the  Muse  of 
Milton  quailed,  and  fell  ten  thousand  fathom  deep  into  Bathos, 
what  could  be  expected  from  human  invention  ?  In  general, 
where  this  subject  is  attempted  in  pictures,  we  find  the  angels 
animated,  like  those  of  Milton  in  the  war  of  heaven,  with 
"  fierce  desire  of  battle,"  breathing  vengeance,  wrath,  and 
fury.  So  Albert  Dtirer,  in  those  wonderful  scenes  of  his 
"  Apocalypse,"  has  exhibited  them ;  but  some  of  the  early 
Italians  show  them  merely  impassive,  conquering  almost  with- 
out effort,  punishing  without  anger.  The  immediate  instru- 
ments of  the  wrath  of  God  in  the  day  of  judgment  are  not 
angels,  but  devils  or  demons,  generally  represented  by  the  old 
painters  with  every  possible  exaggeration  of  hideousness,  and 
as  taking  a  horrible  and  grotesque  delight  in  their  task.  The 
demons  are  fallen  angels,  their  deformity  a  consequence  of 
their  fall.  Tims,  in  some  very  ancient  representations  of  the 
expulsion  of  Lucifer  and  his  rebel  host,  the  degradation  of 
the  form  increases  with  their  distance  from  heaven.  (MS. 
13th  century,  Breviaire  de  St.  Louis.)  Those  who  are  upper- 
most are  still  angels ;  they  bear  the  aureole,  the  wings,  and 
the  tunic  ;  they  have  not  yet  lost  all  their  original  brightness  : 
those  below  them  begin  to  assume  the  bestial  form  :  the  fingers 
become  talons,  the  heads  become  horned;  and  at  last,  as  they 
touch  the  confines  of  the  gulf  of  hell,  the  transformation  is 
Been  complete,  from  the  luminous  angel  into  the  abominable 


ANGELS  61 

and  montrous  devil,  with  serpent  tail,  claws,  bristles,  and 
tusks.  This  gradual  transformation,  as  they  descend  into  the 
gulf  of  sin,  has  a  striking  allegorical  significance  which  cannot 
escape  the  reader.  In  a  Greek  MS.  of  the  ninth  century 
(Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.),  bearing  singular  traces  of  antique  classical 
Art  in  the  conception  and  attributes  of  the  figures,  I  found 
both  angels  and  demons  treated  in  a  style  quite  peculiar  and 
poetical.  The  angels  are  here  gigantic,  majestic,  Jove-like 
figures,  with  great  wings.  The  demons  are  also  majestic, 
graceful  winged  figures,  but  painted  of  a  dusky  gray  color  (it 
may  originally  have  been  black).  In  one  scene,  where  Julian 
the  Apostate  goes  to  seek  the  heathen  divinities,  they  are 
thus  represented,  that  is,  as  black  angels ;  showing  that  the 
painter  had  here  assumed  the  devils  or  demons  to  be  the  dis- 
crowned and  fallen  gods  of  the  antique  world. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  angels 
employed  as  ministers  of  wrath.  Angels,  as  ministers  of 
divine  grace  and  mercy, 

Of  all  those  acts  which  Deity  supreme 
Doth  ease  its  heart  of  love  in, 

occur  much  more  frequently. 

The  ancient  heresy  that  God  made  use  of  the  agency  of 
angels  in  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  mankind,  I  must 
notice  here,  because  it  has  found  its  way  into  Art ;  for  exam- 
ple, in  an  old  miniature  which  represents  an  angel  having 
before  him  a  lump  of  clay,  a  kind  of  ebauche  of  humanity, 
which  he  appears  to  be  moulding  with  his  hands,  while  the 
Almighty  stands  by  directing  the  work.  (As  in  the  legend  of 
Prometheus.  Plato,  Protag.)  This  idea,  absurd  as  it  may 
appear,  is  not  perhaps  more  absurd  than  the  notion  of  those 
who  would  represent  the  Great  First  Cause  as  always  busied 
in  fashioning  or  altering  the  forms  in  His  visible  creation,  like 
a  potter  or  any  other  mechanic.  [There  is  a  very  interesting 
and  remarkable  series  of  panels  by  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones, 
representing  the  seven  angels  of  creation.  The  angel  of  the 
First  Day  has  wings  of  gray  purple,  while  those  of  succeeding 
angels  gradually  brighten  in  color,  flecked  with  gold.  The 
Sabbath  angel  sits  at  the  feet  of  the  Sixth,  flower-garlanded 
and  playing  upon  a  many  stringed  instrument.  The  designs 
were  originally  intended  for  Tamworth  Church  (England),  and 


62  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

are  now  (1894)  in  the  possession  of  Alexander  Henderson, 
Esq.]  But  as  we  are  occupied  at  present  with  the  Scriptural, 
not  the  legendary  subjects,  I  return  to  the  Old  Testament. 
The  first  time  that  we  read  of  an  angel  sent  as  a  messenger  of 
mercy,  it  is  for  the  comfort  of  poor  Hagar ;  when  he  found 
her  weeping  by  the  spring  of  water  in  the  wilderness  because 
her  mistress  had  afflicted  her :  and  again,  when  she  was  cast 
forth  and  her  boy  fainted  for  thirst.  In  the  representation  of 
these  subjects,  I  do  not  know  a  single  instance  in  which  the 
usual  angelic  form  has  not  been  adhered  to.  In  the  sacrifice 
of  .  Isaac,  "  the  angel  of  the  Lord  calls  to  Abraham  out  of 
heaven."  This  subject,  as  the  received  type  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Son  of  God,  was  one  of  the  earliest  in  Christian  Art. 
We  find  it  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  third  and  fourth  centu- 
ries ;  but  in  one  of  the  latest  only  have  I  seen  a  personage 
introduced  as  staying  the  hand  of  Abraham,  and  this  person- 
age is  without  wings.  In  painting,  the  angel  is  sometimes  in 
the  act  of  taking  the  sword  out  of  Abraham's  hand,  which 
expresses  the  nature  of  his  message ;  or  he  lays  one  hand  on 
his  arm,  and  with  the  other  points  to  the  ram  which  was  to 
replace  the  sacrifice,  or  brings  the  ram  in  his  arms  to  the 
altar ;  but,  whatever  the  action,  the  form  of  the  angelic  mes- 
senger has  never  varied  from  the  sixth  century. 

In  the  visit  of  the  angels  to  Abraham  there  has  been  a 
variety  caused  by  the  wording  of  the  text.  It  is  not  said  that 
three  angels  visited  Abraham,  yet  in  most  of  the  ancient  rep- 
resentations the  three  celestial  guests  are  winged  angels.  I 
need  hardly  observe  that  these  three  angels  are  assumed  to  be 
a  figure  of  the  Trinity,  and  in  some  old  illuminations  the  in- 
terpretation is  not  left  doubtful,  the  angels  being  characterized 
as  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity,  wearing  each  the  cruci- 
form nimbus  :  two  of  them,  young  and  beardless,  stand  behind  ; 
the  third,  representing  the  Father,  has  a  beard,  and,  before 
Him  Abraham  is  prostrated.  Beautiful  for  grace  and  sim- 
plicity is  the  winged  group  by  Ghiberti,  in  which  the  three 
seem  to  step  and  move  together  as  one.1  More  modern  artists 
have  given  us  the  celestial  visitants  merely  as  men.  Preemi- 
nent in  this  style  of  conception  are  the  pictures  of  Raphael 
and  Murillo.  Raphael  here,2  as  elsewhere,  a  true  poet,  has 

1  [A  panel  of  the  Baptistery  Gate,  Florence.] 

-'  [A  panel  of  "Raphael's  Bible,"  in  the  Loggia  of  the  Vatican.] 


ANGELS 


63 


Angels  visiting  Abraham  (Raphael) 

succeeded  in  conveying,  with  exquisite  feliciiy,  the  sentiment 
of  power,  of  a  heavenly  presence,  and  of  a  mysterious  signifi- 
cance. The  three  youths,  who  stand  linked  together  hand  in 
hand  before  the  Patriarch,  with  such  an  air  of  henign  and 
superior  grace,  want  no  wings  to  show  us  that  they  belong  to 
the  courts  of  heaven,  and  have  but  just  descended  to  earth  — 

So  lively  shines 

In  them  divine  resemblance,  and  such  grace 
The  hand  that  formed  them  on  their  shape  hath  poured. 

Murillo,  on  the  contrary,  gives  us  merely  three  young  men, 
travellers,  and  has  set  aside  wholly  both  the  angelic  and  the 
mystic  character  of  the  visitants.  (Sutherland  Gallery,  Staf- 
ford House,  London.) 

The  angels  who  descend  and  ascend  the  ladder  in  Jacob's 
dream  are  in  almost  every  instance  represented  in  the  usual 
form ;  sometimes  a  few  (as  in  Raphael's  fresco  in  the  Vati- 
can) —  sometimes  in  multitudes  (as  in  the  picture  by  Allston, 
painted  for  Lord  Egremont,  and  now  at  Petworth)  —  some- 
times as  one  only,  who  turns  to  bless  the  sleeper  before  he 


64  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

ascends ;  1  and  the  ladder  is  sometimes  a  flight,  or  a  series  of 
flights,  of  steps  ascending  from  earth  to  the  empyrean.  But  here 
it  is  Rembrandt  who  has  shown  himself  the  poet ;  the  ladder 
is  a  slanting  stream  of  light ;  the  angels  are  mysterious  bird- 
like  luminous  forms,  which  emerge  one  after  another  from  a 
dazzling  fount  of  glory,  and  go  floating  up  and  down,  —  so  like 
a  dream  made  visible  !  In  Middle- Age  Art  this  vision  of  Jacob 
occurs  very  rarely.  I  shall  have  to  return  to  it  when  treating 
of  the  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament. 

In  the  New  Testament  angels  are  much  more  frequently 
alluded  to  than  in  the  Old ;  more  as  a  reality,  less  as  a  vision  ; 
in  fact,  there  is  no  important  event  throughout  the  Gospels 
and  Acts  in  which  angels  do  not  appear,  either  as  immediate 
agents,  or  as  visible  and  present ;  and  in  scenes  where  they 
are  not  distinctly  said  to  be  visibly  present,  they  are  assumed 
to  be  so  invisibly,  St.  Paul  having  said  expressly  that  "  their 
ministry  is  continual."  It  is  therefore  with  undeniable  pro- 
priety that,  in  works  of  Art  representing  the  incidents  of  the 
Gospels,  angels  should  figure  as  a  perpetual  presence,  made 
visible  under  such  forms  as  custom  and  tradition  have  conse- 
crated. 

I  pass  over,  Jor  the  present,  the  grandest,  the  most  im- 
portant mission  of  an  angel,  the  announcement  brought  by 
Gabriel  to  the  blessed  Virgin.  I  shall  have  to  treat  it  fully 
hereafter  in  the  "  Legends  of  the  Madonna."  The  angel  who 
appears  to  Joseph  in  a  dream,  and  the  angel  who  commands 
him  to  flee  into  Egypt,  was  in  both  cases  probably  the  same 
angel  who  hailed  Mary  as  blessed  above  all  women ;  but  we 
are  not  told  so ;  and  according  to  some  commentators  it  was 
the  guardian  angel  of  Joseph  who  appeared  to  him.  In  these 
and  other  scenes  of  the  New  Testament,  in  which  angels  are 
described  as  direct  agents,  or  merely  as  a  chorus  of  minister- 
ing attendants,  they  have  the  usual  form,  enhanced  by  as 
much  beauty,  and  benignity,  and  aerial  grace  as  the  fancy  of 
the  artist  could  bestow  on  them.  In  the  Nativity  they  are 
seen  hovering  on  high,  pouring  forth  their  song  of  triumph ; 
they  hold  a  scroll  in  their  hands  on  which  their  song  is  writ- 
ten :  in  general  there  are  three  angels  ;  the  first  sings,  Gloria 
in  excelsis  Deo !  the  second,  Et  in  terra  pax !  the  third, 
Hominibus  boncv  voluntatisf  but  in  some  pictures  the  three 
1  As  in  a  picture  by  F.  Bol  [in  Dresden]. 


ANGELS 


65 


Altar 


3 


1 


1 


angels  are  replaced  by  a  numerous  choir,  who  raise  the  song  of 
triumph  in  the  skies,  while  others  are  seen  kneeling  round  and 
adoring  the  Divine  Infant. 

The  happiest,  the  most  beautiful,  instance  I  can  remember 
of  this  particular  treatment  is  the  little  chapel  in  the  Riccardi 
Palace  at  Florence.  The  chapel  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
and  the  frescoes  [by  Benozzo  Gozzoli]  are  thus  disposed:  — 

The  walls  1,  2,  and  3, 
are  painted  with  the  jour- 
ney of  the  Wise  Men,  who, 
with  a  long  train  of  attend- 
ants mounted  on  horseback 
and  gorgeously  apparelled, 
are  seen  travelling  over  hill 
and  dale  led  by  the  guiding 
star.  Over  the  altar  was 
the  Nativity  [by  Filippo 
Lippi,  now  removed  to  the 
Academy]  ;  on  each  side  (4, 
5)  is  seen  a  choir  of  angels, 
perhaps  fifty  in  number,  re- 
joicing over  the  birth  of  the 
Redeemer :  some  kneel  in 

adoration,  with  arms  folded  over  the  bosom,  others  offer  flow- 
ers ;  some  come  dancing  forward  with  flowers  in  their  hands 
or  in  the  lap  of  their  robes ;  others  sing  and  make  celestial 
music ;  they  have  glories  round  their  heads,  all  inscribed  alike, 
"  Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo  !  "  The  na'ive  grace,  the  beautiful 
devout  expression,  the  airy  movements  of  these  lovely  beings, 
melt  the  soul  to  harmony  and  joy.  The  chapel  having  been 
long  shut  up,  and  its  existence  scarcely  remembered,  these 
paintings  are  in  excellent  preservation ;  and  I  saw  nothing  in 
Italy  that  more  impressed  me  with  admiration  of  the  genuine 
feeling  and  piety  of  the  old  masters.  The  choral  angels  of 
^.ngelico  da  Fiesole,  already  described,  are  not  more  pure  in 
sentiment,  and  are  far  less  animated,  than  these.1 

But  how  different  from  both  is  the  ministry  of  the  angels 
in  some  of  the  pictures  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, both  German  and  Italian  !  The  Virgin  Mary  is  washing 

l  For  several  curious  and  interesting  particulars  relative  to  these  subjects 
see  the  Legends  of  the,  Madonna, 


Door 


66  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

her  Divine  Infant ;  angels  dry  the  clothes,  or  pour  out  water ; 
Joseph  is  planing  a  board,  and  angels  assist  the  Infant  Saviour 
in  sweeping  up  the  chips.  In  a  beautiful  little  Madonna  and 
Child1,  in  Prince  Wallerstein's  collection,  an  angel  is  playing 
with  the  Divine  Infant,  is  literally  his  playfellow ;  a  very 
graceful  idea,  of  which  I  have  seen  but  this  one  instance. 

In  the  Flight  into  Egypt  an  angel  often  leads  the  ass.  In 
the  Kiposo,  a  subject  rare  before  the  fifteenth  century,  angels 
offer  fruit  and  flowers,  or  bend  down  the  branches  of  the  date- 
tree,  that  Joseph  may  gather  the  fruit ;  or  weave  the  choral 
dance,  hand  in  hand,  for  the  delight  of  the  Infant  Christ, 
while  others  make  celestial  music,  —  as  in  Vandyck's  beautiful 
picture  in  [the  Pitti,  Florence,  a  replica  of  which  is  in]  Lord 
Ashburton's  collection.  After  the  Temptation,  they  minister 
to  the  Saviour  in  the  wilderness,  and  spread  for  Him  a  table 
of  refreshment  — 

Celestial  food  divine, 

Ambrosial  fruit,  fetched  from  the  tree  of  life, 
And  from  the  fount  of  life  ambrosial  drink. 

[Milton,  Par.  Reg.  book  iv.  590.] 

It  is  not  said  that  angels  were  visibly  present  at  the  baptism 
of  Christ ;  but  it  appears  to  me  that  they  ought  not  therefore 
to  be  supposed  absent,  and  that  there  is  a  propriety  in  making 
them  attendants  on  this  solemn  occasion.  They  are  not  intro- 
duced in  the  very  earliest  examples,  those  in  the  catacombs 
and  sarcophagi ;  nor  yet  in  the  mosaics  of  Ravenna ;  because 
angels  were  then  rarely  figured,  and  instead  of  the  winged 
angel  we  have  the  sedge-crowned  river  god,  representing  the 
Jordan.  In  the  Greek  formula,  they  are  required  to  be  present 
"in  an  attitude  of  respect : "  no  mention  is  made  of  their 
holding  the  garments  of  our  Saviour ;  but  it  is  certain  that  in 
Byzantine  Art,  and  generally  from  the  twelfth  century,  this 
has  been  the  usual  mode  of  representing  them.  According  to 
the  Fathers,  our  Saviour  had  no  guardian  angel,  because  He 
did  not  require  one ;  notwithstanding  the  sense  usually  giv^p 
to  the  text,  "  He  shall  give  His  angels  charge  concerning  thee, 
lest  at  any  time  thou  dash  thy  foot  against  a  stone,"  the  angels, 
they  affirm,  were"  not  the  guardians,  but  the  servante,  of 
Christ;  and  hence,  I  presume,  the  custom  of  representing 
them,  not  merely  as  present,  but  as  ministering  to  Him  during 
His  baptism.  The  gates  of  San  Paolo  (tenth  century)  afford 


ANGELS  67 

the  most  ancient  example  I  have  met  with  of  an  angel  holding 
the  raiment  of  the  Saviour :  there  is  only  one  angel.  Giotto 
introduces  two  graceful  angels  kneeling  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  and  looking  on  with  attention.  The  angel  in  Raphael's 
composition  [Vatican]  bows  his  head,  as  if  awestruck  by  the 
divine  recognition  of  the  majesty  of  the  Redeemer ;  and  the 
reverent  manner  in  which  he  holds  the  vestment  is  very  beau- 
tiful. Other  examples  will  here  suggest  themselves  to  the 
reader,  and  I  shall  resume  the  subject  when  treating  of  the 
life  of  our  Saviour. 

In  one  account  of  our  Saviour's  agony  in  the  Garden  of 
Gethsemane  it  is  expressly  said  that  an  angel  "  appeared  unto 
Him  out  of  heaven,  strengthening  Him ;  "  therefore,  where 
this  awful  and  pathetic  subject  has  been  attempted  in  Art, 
there  is  propriety  in  introducing  a  visible  angel.  Notwith- 
standing the  latitude  thus  allowed  to  the  imagination,  or  per- 
haps for  that  very  reason,  the  greatest  and  the  most  intelligent 
"  painters  have  here  fallen  into  strange  errors,  both  in  conception 
and  in  taste.  For  instance,  is  it  not  a  manifest  impropriety  to 
take  the  Scripture  phrase  in  a  literal  sense,  and  place  a  cup  in 
the  hand  of  the  angel  ?  Is  not  the  word  cup  here,  as  else- 
where, used  as  a  metaphor,  signifying  the  destiny  awarded  by 
Divine  will,  as  Christ  had  said  before,  "  Ye  shall  drink  of  my 
cup,"  and  as  we  say,  "  His  cup  overfloweth  with  blessings  ?  " 
The  angel,  therefore,  who  does  not  bend  from  heaven  to  an- 
nounce to  Him  the  decree  He  knew  full  well,  nor  to  present 
the  cup  of  bitterness,  but  to  strengthen  and  comfort  Him, 
should  not  bear  the  cup,  —  still  less  the  cross,  the  scourge, 
the  crown  of  thorns,  as  in  many  pictures. 

Where  our  Saviour  appears  bowed  to  the  earth,  prostrate, 
half  swooning  with  the  anguish  of  that  dread  moment,  and  an 
angel  is  seen  sustaining  Him,  there  is  a  true  feeling  of  the  real 
meaning  of  Scripture ;  but  even  in  such  examples  the  effect  is 
often  spoiled  by  an  attempt  to  render  the  scene  at  once  more 
mystical  and  more  palpable.  Thus  a  painter  equally  remark- 
able for  the  purity  of  his  taste  and  deep  religious,  feeling, 
Xiccolo  Poussin,  has  represented  Christ,  in  His  agony,  sup- 
ported in  the  arms  of  an  angel,  while  a  crowd  of  child-angels, 
very  much  like  Cupids,  appear  before  Him  with  the  instru- 
ments of  the  Passion ;  ten  or  twelve  bear  a  huge  cross ;  others 


68  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

hold  the  scourge,  the  crown  of  thorns,  the  nails,  the  sponge, 
the  spear,  and  exhibit  them  before  Him,  as  if  these  were  the 
images,  these  the  terrors,  which  could  overwhelm  with  fear 
and  anguish  even  the  human  nature  of  such  a  Being ! 1  It 
seems  to  me  also  a  mistake,  when  the  angel  is  introduced,  to 
make  him  merely  an  accessory  (as  Raphael  has  done  in  one  of 
his  early  pictures),  a  little  figure  in  the  air  to  help  the  mean- 
ing :  since  the  occasion  was  worthy  of  angelic  intervention,  in 
a  visible  shape,  bringing  divine  solace,  divine  sympathy,  it 
should  be  represented  under  a  form  the  most  mighty  and  the 
most  benign  that  Art  could  compass ;  but  has  it  been  so  ? 
I  can  recollect  no  instance  in  which  the  failure  has  not  been 
complete.  If  it  be  said  that  to  render  the  angelic  comforter  so 
superior  to  the  sorrowing  and  prostrate  Redeemer  would  be  to 
detract  from  His  dignity  as  the  principal  personage  of  the 
scene,  and  thus  violate  one  of  the  first  rules  of  Art,  I  think 
differently,  —  I  think  it  could  do  so  only  in  unskilful  hands. 
Represented  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  might  be,  it  would  infi- 
nitely enhance  the  idea  of  that  unimaginable  anguish  which, 
as  we  are  told,  was  compounded  of  the  iniquities  and  sorrows 
of  all  humanity  laid  upon  Him.  It  was  not  the  pang  of  the 
Mortal,  but  the  Immortal,  which  required  the  presence  of  a 
ministering  spirit  sent  down  from  heaven  to  sustain  Him. 

In  the  Crucifixion,  angels  are  seen  lamenting,  wringing  their 
hands,  averting  or  hiding  their  faces.  In  the  old  Greek  cruci- 
fixions, one  angel  bears  the  sun,  another  the  moon,  on  each 
side  of  the  cross  :  — 

Dim  sadness  did  not  spare, 
That  time,  celestial  visages. 

Michael  Angelo  gives  us  two  unwinged  colossal-looking  angel 
heads,  which  peer  out  of  heaven  in  the  background  of  his 
Crucifixion  in  a  manner  truly  supernatural,  as  if  they  sympa- 
thized in  the  consummation,  but  in  awe  rather  than  in  grief. 

Angels  also  receive  in  golden  cups  the  blood  which  flows 
from  the  wounds  of  our  Saviour.  This  is  a  representation 
Avhich  has  the  authority  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  and 
most  spiritual  among  the  old  painters ;  but  it  is,  to  my  taste, 
particularly  unpleasing  and  unpoetical.  Raphael,  in  an  early 

1  The  picture  is,  I  suspect,  not  by  Poussin,  but  by  Stella.     There  is  another, 
similar,  by  Guido,  in  the  Louvre. 


ANGELS 


69 


Angels  (Martin  Schoen) 


picture,  the  only  Cruci- 
fixion he  ever  painted,1 
thus  introduces  the 
angels ;  and  this  form 
of  the  angelic  ministry 
is  a  mystical  version  of 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Re- 
deemer not  uncommon 
in  Italian  and  German 
pictures  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

As  the  Scriptural 
and  legendary  scenes, 
in  which  angels  form 
the  poetical  machinery, 
will  be  discussed  here- 
after in  detail  as  sepa- 
rate subjects,  I  shall 
conclude  these  general 
and  preliminary  re- 
marks with  a  few  words 
on  the  characteristic  style  in  which  the  principal  painters  have 
set  forth  the  angelic  forms  and  attributes. 

It  appears  that,  previous  to  the  end  of  .the  fourth  century A 
there  were  religious  scruples  which  forbade  the  representation 
of  angels,  arising,  perhaps,  from  the  scandal  caused  in  the 
early  Church  by  the  worship  paid  to  these  supernatural  beings, 
and  so  strongly  opposed  by  the  primitive  teachers.  We  do 
not  find  on  any  of  the  Christian  relics  of  the  first  three  cen~ 
turies,  neither  in  the  catacombs  nor  on  the  vases  or  the 
sarcophagi,  any  figure  which  could  be  supposed  to  represent 
what  we  call  an  angel.  On  one  of  the  latest  sarcophagi  we 
find  little  winged  figures,  but  evidently  the  classical  winged 
genii,  used  in  the  classical  manner  as  ornament  only  (Ciampini, 
p.  131,  A.  D.  394).  In  the  second  Council  of  Nice,  John  of 
Thessalonica  maintained  that  angels  have  the  human  form,  and 
may  be  so  represented  ;  and  the  Jewish  doctors  had  previously 
decided  that  God  consulted  His  angels  when  He  said,  "  Let  us 
make  man  after  our  image,"  and  that  consequently  we  may 
suppose  the  angels  to  be  like  men,  or,  in  the  words  of  the 

1  [Collection  of  L.  Mond,  Esq.,  London.] 


70  OF   ANGELS   AND   AECHANGELS 

prophet,  "like  unto  the  similitude  of  the  sons  of  men."1 
(Dan.  x.  16.) 

But  it  is  evident  that,  in  the  first  attempt  at  angelic  effigy, 
it  was  deemed  necessary,  in  giving  the  human  shape,  to  render 
it  as  superhuman,  as  imposing  as  possible ;  colossal  propor- 
tions, mighty  overshadowing  wings,  kingly  attributes,  —  these 
we  find  in  the  earliest  figures  of  angels  which  I  believe  exist,  — 
the  mosaics  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Agata  at  Ravenna  (A.  D. 
400).  Christ  is  seated  on  a  throne  (as  in  the  early  sar- 
cophagi) ;  He  holds  the  Gospel  in  one  hand,  and  with  the  left 
gives  the  benediction.  An  angel  stands  on  each  side ;  they 
have  large  wings,  and  bear  a  silver  wand,  the  long  sceptre  of 
the  Grecian  kings ;  they  are  robed  in  classical  drapery,  but 
wear  the  short  pallium  (the  "  garb  succinct  for  flight ")  ;  their 
feet  are  sandaled,  as  prepared  for  a  journey,  and  their  hair 
bound  by  a  fillet.  Except  in  the  wings  and  short  pallium, 
they  resemble  the  figures  of  Grecian  kings  and  priests  in  the 
ancient  bas-reliefs. 

This  was  the  truly  majestic  idea  of  an  angelic  presence  (in 
contradistinction  to  the  angelic  emblem),  which,  well  or  ill 
executed,  prevailed  during  the  first  ten  centuries.  In  the 
MS.  already  referred  to  (in  the  Bib.  Nat.,  Paris),  as  con- 
taining such  magnificent  examples  of  this  godlike  form  and 
bearing,  I  selected  one  group  less  ruined  than  most  of  the 
others,  —  Jacob  wrestling  with  the  angel.  The  drawing  is 
wonderful  for  the  period,  that  of  Charlemagne  ;  the  mighty 
being  grasps  the  puny  mortal,  who  was  permitted  for  a  while 
to  resist  him !  —  "  He  touched  the  hollow  of  Jacob's  thigh, 
and  it  was  out  of  joint ;  "  —  the  action  is  as  significant  as 
possible.  In  the  original,  the  drapery  of  the  angel  is  white ; 
the  fillet  binding  the  hair,  the  sandals,  and  the  wings,  of  pur- 
ple and  gold. 

From  the  eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  century  the  forms  of 
the  angels  became,  like  all  things  in  the  then  degraded  state 
of  Byzantine  Art,  merely  conventional.  They  are  attired 
either  in  the  imperial  or  the  sacerdotal  vestments,  as  already 
described,  and  are  richly  ornamented,  tasteless  and  stiff,  large 
without  grandeur,  and,  in  general,  ill  drawn ;  as  in  [some] 
figures  [at]  Monreale. 

On  the  revival  of  Art,  we  find  the  Byzantine  idea  of  angels 
i  Greek  MS.,  A.  D.  867. 


ANGELS 


71 


everywhere  prevailing.  The  angels  in  Ciraabue's  famous 
"  Virgin  and  Child  Enthroned  "  [Kucellai  Chapel,  S.  Maria 
Novella,  Florence]  are  grand  creatures,  rather  stern  ;  but  this 
arose,  I  think,  from  his  inability  to  express  beauty.  The 
colossal  angels  at  [S.  Francesco]  Assisi  (A.  r>.  1270),  solemn 
sceptred  kingly  forms,  all  alike  in  action  and  attitude,  appeared 
to  me  magnificent. 

In  the  angels  of  Giotto  (A.  D.  1310),  we  see  the  commence- 
ment of  a  softer  grace  and  a  purer  taste,  further  developed  by 
some  of  his  scholars.  Be- 
nozzo  Gozzoli  has  left  in  the 
Campo  Santo  examples  of 
the  most  graceful  and  fanci- 
ful treatment.  Of  Benozzo's 
angels  in  the  Riccardi  Palace 
I  have  spoken  at  length. 
His  master  Angelico  (worthy 
the  name !)  never  reached 
the  same  power  of  expressing 
the  rapturous  rejoicing  of 
celestial  beings,  but  his  con- 
ception of  the  angelic  nature 
remains  unapproached,  unap- 
proachable (A.  D.  1430) ;  it 
is  only  his,  for  it  was  the 
gentle,  passionless,  refined 
nature  of  the  recluse,  which 
stamped  itself  there.  An- 
gelico's  angels  are  unearthly, 
not  so  much  in  form  as  in 
sentiment ;  and  superhuman, 
not  in  power  but  in  purity. 
In  other  hands,  any  imitation 
of  his  soft  ethereal  grace 
would  become  feeble  and  in-  Angels  (Angelico) 

sipid.     With  their  long  robes 

falling  round  their  feet,  and  drooping  many-colored  wings, 
they  seem  not  to  fly  or  to  walk,  but  to  float  along,  "  smooth 
sliding  without  step."  Blessed,  blessed  creatures !  love  us, 
only  love  us,  for  we  dare  not  task  your  soft  serene  Beatitude 
by  asking  you  to  help  us ! 


72 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


Angels  in  Adoration  (Granacd) 

There  is  more  sympathy  with  humanity  in  Francia's  angels  j 
they  look  as  if  they  could  weep,  as  well  as  love  and  sing. 

Most  beautiful  are  the  groups  of  adoring  angels  by  Fran- 
cesco Granacci  so  serenely  tender,  yet  with  a  touch  of  grave 
earnestness  which  gives  them  a  character  apart :  they  have 
the  air  of  guardian  angels  who  have  discharged  their  trust, 
and  to  whom  the  Supreme  utterance  has  voiced  forth,  "  Ser- 
vant of  God,  Avell  done !  "  (In  the  Academy  at  Florence  :  they 
must  have  formed  the  side  wings  to  an  enthroned  Madonna 
and  Child.) 


ANGELS 


73 


The  angels  of  Botticelli  are  often  stiff,  and  those  of  Ghir- 
landajo  sometimes  fantastic ;  but  in  both  I  have  met  with 
angelic  countenances  and  forms  which,  for  intense  and  happy 
expression,  can  never  be  forgotten.  One  has  the  feeling,  how- 
ever, that  they  used  human  models  —  the  portrait  face  looks 
through  the  angel  face.  This  is  still  more  apparent  in 
Mantegna  and  Filippo  Lippi.  As  we  might  have  expected 
from  the  character  of  Fra  Filippo,  his  angels  want  refinement : 
they  have  a  boyish  look,  with  their  crisped  curled  hair  and 
their  bold  beauty;  yet  some  of  them  are  magnificent  for 
that  sort  of  angel-beings  supposed  to  have  a  volition  of  their 
own.  Andrea  del  Sarto's  angelfe 
have  the  same  fault  in  a  less 
degree  :  they  have,  if  not  a  bold, 
yet  a  self-willed  boyish  expres- 
sion. 

Perugino's  angels  convey  the 
idea  of  an  unalterable  sweetness : 
those  of  his  earlier  time  have 
much  natural  grace,  those  of  his 
later  time  are  mannered.  In 
early  Venetian  Art  the  angels  are 
charming  ;  they  are  happy,  affec- 
tionate beings,  with  a  touch  of 
that  voluptuous  sentiment  after- 
wards the  characteristic  of  the 
Venetian  school. 

In  the  contemporary  German 
school,  angels  are  treated  in  a 
very  extraordinary  and  original 
style.  One  cannot  say  that  they 
are  earthly  or  commonplace,  still 
less  are  they  beautiful  or  divine ; 
but  they  have  great  simplicity, 
earnestness,  and  energy  of  action. 
They  appear  to  me  conceived  in 

the  Old  Testament  spirit,  with  their  grand  stiff  massive  dra- 
peries, their  jewelled  and  golden  glories,  their  wings  "  eyed 
like  the  peacock,  speckled  like  the  pard,"  their  intense  ex- 
pression, and  the  sort  of  personal  and  passionate  interest  they 
throw  into  their  ministry.  This  is  the  character  of  Albert 


Angel  (Perugino) 


74  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

Diirer's  angels  especially ;  those  of  Martin  Schoen  and  Lucas 
v.  Leyden  are  of  a  gentler  spirit. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci's  angels  do  not  quite  please  me,  elegant, 
refined,  and  lovely  as  they  are  :  —  "  methinks  they  smile  too 
much."  By  his  scholar  Luini  there  are  some  angels  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Brera,  swinging  censers  and  playing  on  musi- 
cal instruments,  which,  with  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
Milanese  school,  combine  all  the  grace  of  a  purer,  loftier 
nature. 

Correggio's  angels  are  grand  and  lovely,  but  they  are  like 
children  enlarged  and  sublimated,  not  like  spirits  taking  the 
form  of  children :  where  th£y  smile  it  is  truly,  as  Annibal 
Caracci  expresses  it,  "con  una  naturalezza  e  semplicita  che 
innamora  e  sforza  a  ridere  con  loro ; "  1  but  the  smile  in 
many  of  Correggio's  angel  heads  has  something  sublime  and 
spiritual,  as  well  as  simple  and  natural. 

And  Titian's  angels  impress  me  in  a  similar  manner  —  I 
mean  those  in  the  glorious  Assumption  at  Venice  —  with  their 
childish  forms  and  features,  but  with  an  expression  caught 
from  beholding  the  face  of  "  our  Father  that  is  in  heaven  :  " 
it  is  glorified  infancy.  I  remember  standing  before  this  pic- 
ture, contemplating  those  lovely  spirits  one  after  another,  until 
a  thrill  came  over  me  like  that  which  I  felt  when  Mendelssohn 
played  the  organ,  and  I  became  music  while  I  listened.  The 
face  of  one  of  those  angels  is  to  the  face  of  a  child  just  what 
that  of  the  Virgin  in  the  same  picture  is  compared  with  the 
fairest  of  the  daughters  of  earth  :  it  is  not  here  superiority  of 
beauty,  but  mind  and  music  and  love,  kneaded,  as  it  were,  into 
form  and  color. 

I  have  thought  it  singular  and  somewhat  unaccountable,  that 
among  the  earliest  examples  of  undraped  boy-angels  are  those 
of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  —  he  who  on  one  occasion,  at  the  command 
of  Savonarola,  made  a  bonfire  of  all  the  undressed  figures  he 
could  lay  his  hands  on. 

But  Raphael,  excelling  in  all  things,  is  here  excellent  above 
all  :  his  angels  combine,  in  a  higher  degree  than  any  other,  the 
various  faculties  and  attributes  in  which  the  fancy  loves  to 
clothe  these  pure  immortal,  beatified  creatures.  The  angels  of 
Giotto,  of  Benozzo,  of  Fiesole,  are,  if  not  female,  feminine  ; 

1  ["  With  a  naturalness  and  simplicity  which  delights  and  makes  us  laugh 
with  them."] 


ANGELS 


75 


those  o^F.  Lippi,  and  of  A.  Mantegna,  masculine;  but  you 
cannot  say  of  those  of  Raphael  that  they  are  masculine  or 
feminine.  The  idea  of  sex  is  wholly  lost  in  the  blending  of 
power,  intelligence,  and  grace.  In  his  earlier  pictures  grace  is 
the  predominant  characteristic,  as  in  the  dancing  and  singing 
angels  in  his  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  (Gallery  of  the  Vatican). 
In  his  later  pictures  the  sentiment  in  his  ministering  angels  is 
more  spiritual,  more  dignified.  As  a  perfect  example  of  grand 


Angels  (Titian) 

and  poetical  feeling,  I  may  cite  the  angels  as  ' 'Regents  of  the 
Planets,"  in  the  Capella  Chigiana  (S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome). 
The  cupola  represents  in  a  circle  the  creation  of  the  solar 
system  according  to  the  theological  and  astronomical  (or  rather 
astrological)  notions  which  then  prevailed  —  a  hundred  years 
before  "  the  starry  Galileo  and  his  woes."  In  the  centre  is 
the  Creator ;  around,  in  eight  compartments,  we  have,  first, 
the  angel  of  the  celestial  sphere,  who  seems  to  be  listening 
to  the  divine  mandate,  "  Let  there  be  lights  in  the  firmament 
of  heaven ;  "  then  follow,  in  their  order,  the  Sun,  the  Moon, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  The  name  of 


76  OF   ANGELS   AND  ARCHANGELS 

each  planet  is  expressed  by  its  mythological  represlntative  j 
the  Sun  by  Apollo,  the  Moon  by  Diana :  and  over  each  pre- 
sides a  grand  colossal  winged  spirit  seated  or  reclining  on  a 
portion  of  the  zodiac  as  on  a  throne.  The  union  of  the  theo- 
logical and  the  mythological  attributes  is  in  the  classical  taste 
of  the  time,  and  quite  Miltonic.1  In  Raphael's  child-angels, 
the  expression  of  power  and  intelligence,  as  well  as  innocence, 
is  quite  wonderful ;  for  instance,  look  at  the  two  angel-boys  in 
the  Dresden  Madonna  di  San  Sisto,  and  the  angels,  or  celestial 
genii,  who  bear  along  the  Almighty  when  He  appears  to  Noah, 
(as  in  the  fresco  in  the  Vatican  [Stanza  d'  Eliodoro].)  No 
one  has  expressed  like  Raphael  the  action  of  flight,  except 
perhaps  Rembrandt.  The  angel  who  descends  to  crown  Santa 
Felicitk  cleaves  the  air  with  the  action  of  a  swallow  ; 2  and  the 
angel  in  Rembrandt's  Tobit  soars  like  a  lark  with  upward 
motion,  spurning  the  earth. 

Michael  Angelo  rarely  gave  wings  to  his  angels ;  I  scarcely 
recollect  an  instance,  except  the  angel  in  the  Annunciation  :  and 
his  exaggerated  human  forms,  his  colossal  creatures,  in  which 
the  idea  of  power  is  conveyed  through  attitude  and  muscular 
action,  are,  to  my  taste,  worse  than  unpleasing.  My  admira- 
tion for  this  wonderful  man  is  so  profound  that  I  can  afford 
to  say  this.  His  angels  are  superhuman,  but  hardly  angelic  : 
and  while  in  Raphael's  angels  we  do  not  feel  the  want  of  wings, 
we  feel  while  looking  at  those  of  Michael  Angelo,  that  not 
even  the  "  sail-broad  vans  "  with  which  Satan  labored  through 
the  surging  abyss  of  chaos  could  suffice  to  lift  those  Titanic 
forms  from  earth  and  sustain  them  in  mid-air.  The  group  of 
angels  over  the  Last  Judgment  [Sistine  Chapel],  flinging  their 
mighty  limbs  about,  and  those  that  surround  the  descending 
figure  of  Christen  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul  [Pauline  Chapel], 
may  be  referred  to  here  as  characteristic  examples.  The 
angels,  blowing  their  trumpets,  puff  and  strain  like  so  many 
troopers.  Surely  this  is  not  angelic :  there  may  be  poiver, 
great  imaginative  and  artistic  power,  exhibited  in  the  concep- 

1  The  mosaics  in  the  dcnne  of  the  Chigi  chapel  are  so  ill-lighted  that  it  is 
difficult  to  observe  them  in  detail,  but  the}'  have  lately  been  rendered  cheaply 
accessible  in  the  fine  set  of  engravings  by  Gruner,  an  artist  who  in  our  day 
has  revived  the   pure   and   correct  design   and   elegant  execution  of  Marc 
Antonio. 

2  See  the  engraving  under  this  title  by  Marc  Antonio  ;  it  is  properly  St. 
Cecilia,  and  not  St.  Felicita. 


ANGELS 


77 


Angel  (Raphael) 

tion  of  form,  but  in  the  beings  themselves  there  is  more  of 
effort  than  of  power  ;  serenity,  tranquillity,  beatitude,  ethereal 
purity,  spiritual  grace  are  out  of  the  question. 

The  later  followers  of  his  school,  in  their  angelic  as  in  their 
human  forms,  caricatured  their  great  master,  and  became,  to  an 
offensive  degree,  forced,  extravagant,  and  sensual. 

When  we  come  to  the  revival  of  a  better  "taste  under  the 
influence  of  the  Caracci,  we  find  the  angels  of  that  school  as 
far  removed  from  the  early  Christian  types  as  were  their  apos- 
tles and  martyrs.  They  have  often  great  beauty,  consummate 
elegance,  but  bear  the  same  relation  to  the'  religious  and  ethe- 
real types  of  the  early  painters  that  the  angels  of  Tasso  bear 
to  those  of  Dante.  Turn,  for  instance,  to  the  commencement 
of  the  "  Gerusalemme  Liberata,"  where  the  angel  is  deputed 
to  carry  to  Godfrey  the  behest  of  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
picture  of  the  angel  is  distinctly  and  poetically  brought  before 
xis  ;  he  takes  to  himself  a  form  between  boyhood  and  youth  ; 


78  OF  ANGELS   AND   AECHANGELS 

his  waving  curls  are  crowned  with  beams  of  light ;  he  puts  on 
a  pair  of  wings  of  silver  tipped  with  gold,  with  which  he 
cleaves  the  air,  the  clouds,  the  skies ;  he  alights  on  Mount 
Lebanon,  and  poises  himself  on  his  balanced  wings  — 

E  si  libro  su  1'  adeguate  penne. 

This  is  exactly  the  angel  which  figures  in  the  best  pictures  of 
the  Caracci  and  Guido :  he  is  supremely  elegant,  and  nothing 
more. 

I  must  not  here  venture  on  minute  criticism,  as  regards  dis- 
tinctive character  in  the  crowds  of  painters  which  sprung  out 
of  the  eclectic  school.  It  would  carry  us  too  far ;  but  one  or 
two  general  remarks  will  lead  the  reader's  fancy  along  the  path 
I  would  wish  him  to  pursue.  I  would  say,  therefore,  that  the 
angels  of  Ludovico  have  more  of  sentiment,  those  of  Annibal 
more  of  power,  those  of  Guido  more  of  grace  ;  and  of  Guido 
it  may  be  said  that  he  excels  them  all  in  the  expression  of 
adoration  and  humility ;  see,  for  instance,  the  adoring  seraphs 
in  Lord  Ellesmere's  "  Immaculate  Conception."  The  angels  of 
Domenichino,  Guercino,  and  Albano  are  to  me  less  pleasing. 
Domenichino's  angels  are  merely  human.  I  never  saw  an 
angel  in  one  of  Guercino's  pictures  that  had  not,  with  the 
merely  human  character,  a  touch  of  vulgarity.  As  for  Albano, 
how  are  we  to  discriminate  between  his  angels  and  his  nymphs, 
Apollos,  and  Cupids  ?  But  for  the  occasion  and  the  appella- 
tion, it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  distinguish  the  Loves  that 
sport  round  Venus  and  Adonis,  from  the  Cherubim,  so  called, 
that  hover  above  a  Nativity  or  a  Riposo ;  and  the  little  angels 
in  his  Crucifixion  cry  so  like  naughty  little  boys  that  one 
longs  to  put  them  in  a  corner.  This  merely  heathen  grace 
and  merely  human  sentiment  is  the  general  tendency  of  the 
whole  school ;  and  no  beauty  of  form  or  color  can,  to  the 
feeling  and  religious  mind,  redeem  such  gross  violations  of 
propriety.  As  for  Poussin,  of  whom  I  think  with  due  rever- 
ence, his  angels  are  often  exquisitely  beautiful  and  refined  : 
they  have  a  chastity  and  a  moral  grace  which  pleases  at  first 
view ;  but  here  again  the  scriptural  type  is  neglected  and 
heathenized  in  obedience  to  the  fashion  of  the  time.  If  we 
compare  the  Cupids  in  his  Rinaldo  and  Armida  with  the 
angels  which  minister  to  the  Virgin  and  Child,  or  the  Cheru- 
bim weeping  in  a  Deposition  with  the  Amorini  who  are 


Angel  (Rembrandt) 


lamenting  over  Adonis ;  in  what  respect  do  they  differ  ? 
They  are  evidently  painted  from  the  same  models,  the  beau- 
tiful children  of  Titian  and  Fiamingo. 

Rubens  gives  us  strong  well-built  youths,  with  redundant 
yellow  hair ;  and  chubby  naked  babies,  as  like  flesh  and 
blood,  and  as  natural,  as  the  life :  and  those  of  Vandyck  are 
more  elegant,  without  being  more  angelic.  Murillo's  child- 
angels  are  divine,  through  absolute  beauty ;  the  expression  of 
innocence  and  beatitude  was  never  more  perfectly  given ;  but 
in  grandeur  and  power  they  are  inferior  to  Correggio,  and, 
in  all  that  should  characterize  a  divine  nature,  immeasurably 
below  Raphael. 

Strange  to  say,  the  most  poetical  painter  of  angels  in  the 
seventeenth  century  is  that  inspired  Dutchman,  Rembrandt ; 
not  that  his  angels  are  scriptural ;  still  less  classical ;  and 
beautiful  they  are  not,  certainly  —  often  the  reverse ;  but  if 
they  have  not  the  Miltonic  dignity  and  grace,  they  are  at 
least  as  unearthly  and  as  poetical  as  any  of  the  angelic 
79 


80  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

phantasms  in  Dante,  —  unhuman,  unembodied  creatures,  com- 
pounded of  light  and  darkness,  "the  somewhat  between  a 
thought  and  a  thing,'''  haunting  the  memory  like  apparitions. 
For  instance,  look  at  his  Jacob's  Dream,  at  Dulwich ;  or  his 
etching  of  the  Angels  appearing  to  the  Shepherds,  —  breaking 
through  the  night,  scattering  the  gloom,  making  our  eyes 
ache  with  excess  of  glory,  —  the  Gloria  in  excelsis  ringing 
through  the  fancy  while  we  gaze  ! 

I  have  before  observed  that  angels  are  supposed  to  be  mas- 
culine, with  the  feminine  attributes  of  beauty  and  purity ;  but 
in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Florentine  painter,  Giovanni 
di  S.  Giovanni,  scandalized  his  contemporaries  by  introducing 
into  a  glory  round  the  Virgin,  female  angels  (angelesse). 
Rubens  has  more  than  once  committed  the  same  fault  against 
ecclesiastical  canons  and  decorum;  for  instance,  in  his  "Ma- 
donna aux  Anges  "  in  the  Louvre.  Such  aberrations  of  fancy 
are  mere  caprices  of  the  painter,  improprieties  inadmissible  in 
high  Art. 

Of  the  sprawling,  fluttering,  half-naked  angels  of  the  Pietro 
da  Cortona  and  Bernini  school,  and  the  feeble  mannerists 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  what  shall  be 
said  ?  that  they  are  worthy  to  illustrate  Moore's  "  Loves  of 
the  Angels"?  "non  ragioniam  di  lor ;"  no,  nor  even  look  at 
them !  I  have  seen  angels  of  the  later  Italian  and  Spanish 
painters  more  like  opera  dancers  with  artificial  wings  and  gauze 
draperies,  dressed  to  figure  in  a  ballet,  than  anything  else  I 
could  compare  them  to. 

The  most  original,  and,  in  truth,  the  only  new  and  original 
version  of  the  Scripture  idea  of  angels  which  I  have  met  with, 
is  that  of  William  Blake,  a  poet  painter,  somewhat  mad  as 
we  are  told,  if  indeed  his  madness  were  not  rather  "  the  tele- 
scope of  truth,"  a  sort  of  poetical  clairvoyance,  bringing  the 
unearthly  nearer  to  him  than  to  others.  His  adoring  angels 
float  rather  than  fly,  and,  with  their  half-liquid  draperies, 
seem  about  to  dissolve  into  light  and  love  :  and  his  rejoicing 
angels  —  behold  them  —  sending  up  their  voices  with  the 
morning  stars,  that  "  singing,  in  their  glory  move  !  " 

As  regards  the  treatment  of  angels  in  the  more  recent  pro- 
ductions of  Art,  the  painters  and  sculptors  have  generally 
adhered  to  received  and  known  types  in  form  and  in  senti- 


ANGELS  81 

ment.  The  angels  of  the  old  Italians,  Giotto  and  Frate 
Angelico,  have  been  very  well  imitated  by  Steinle  and  others 
of  the  German  school :  th£  Raffaelesque  feeling  has  been  in 
general  aimed  at  by  the  French  and  English  painters.  Tene- 
rani  had  the  old  mosaics  in  his  mind  when  he  conceived  that 
magnificent  colossal  Angel  of  the  Resurrection  seated  on  a 


Angel  (Niccolb  del  Area) 

tomb,  and  waiting  for  the  signal  to  sound  his  trumpet,  which 
I  saw  in  his  atelier,  prepared,  I  believe,  for  the  monument 
of  the  Duchess  Lanti  [and  now  in  the  Lanti  chapel  of  Sta 
Maria  sopra  Minerva]. 

Mr.  Rusldn  remarks  very  truly,  that  in  early  Christian  Art 
there  is  "  a  certain  confidence,  in  the  way  in  which  angels  trust 
to  their  wings,  very  characteristic  of  a  period  of  bold  and 
simple  conception.  Modern  science  has  taught  us  that  a  wing 


82  OF   ANGELS   AND  ARCHANGELS 

cannot  be  anatomically  joined  to  a  shoulder ;  and  in  proportion 
as  painters  approach  more  and  more  to  the  scientific  as' distin- 
guished from  the  contemplative  state  of  mind,  they  put  the 
wings  of  their  angels  on  more  timidly,  and  dwell  with  greater 
emphasis  on  the  human  form  with  less  upon  the  wings,  until 
these  last  become  a  species  of  decorative  appendage,  a  mere 
sign  of  an  angel.  But  in  Giotto's  time  an  angel  was  a  com- 
plete creature,  as  much  believed  in  as  a  bird,  and  the  way  in 
which  it  would  or  might  cast  itself  into  the  air  and  lean  hither 
and  thither  on  its  plumes  was  as  naturally  apprehended  as 
the  manner  of  flight  of  a  chough  or  a  starling.  Hence  Dante's 
simple  and  most  exquisite  synonym  for  angel,  '  Bird  of  God ; ' 
and  hence  also  a  variety  and  picturesqueness  in  the  expression 
of  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  hierarchies  by  the  earlier 
painters,  ill  replaced  by  the  powers  of  foreshortening  and 
throwing  naked  limbs  into  fantastic  positions,  which  appear  in 
the  cherubic  groups  of  later  times."  [Some  of]  the  angels 
from  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  are  instances  of  this  bird-like 
form.  They  are  Uccelli  di  Dio.  [Others]  are  examples  of 
the  later  treatment. 

I  pause  here,  for  I  have  dwelt  upon  these  celestial  Hier- 
archies, winged  Splendors,  Princedoms,  Virtues,  Powers,  till 
my  fancy  is  becoming  somewhat  mazed  and  dazzled  by  the 
contemplation.  I  must  leave  the  reader  to  go  into  a  picture- 
gallery,  or  look  over  a  portfolio  of  engravings,  and  so  pursue 
the  theme,  whithersoever  it  may  lead  him,  and  it  may  lead 
him,  in  Hamlet's  "words,  "to  thoughts  beyond  the  reaches  of 
his  soul !  " 


Archangels  (Cimabue) 


II.  ARCHANGELS 

The  Seven 

Who  in  God's  presence,  nearest  to  His  throne, 
Stand  ready  at  command.  —  MILTON. 

Having  treated  of  the  celestial  Hierarchy  in  general,  we 
have  now  to  consider  those  angels  Avho  in  artistic  representa- 
tions have  assumed  an  individual  form  and  character.  These 
helong  to  the  order  of  Archangels,  placed  by  Dionysius  in  the 
third  Hierarchy  :  they  take  rank  between  the  Princedoms  and 
the  Angels,  and  partake  of  the  nature  of  both,  being,  like  the 
Princedoms,  Powers ;  and,  like  the  Angels,  Ministers  and  Mes- 
sengers. 

Frequent  allusion  is  made  in  Scripture  to  the  seven  Angels 
who  stand  in  the  presence  of  God.  (Eev.  viii.  2,  xv.  1,  xvi. 
1,  etc. ;  Tobit  xxii.  15.)  This  was  in  accordance  with  the 
popular  creed  of  the  Jews,  who  not  only  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  Seven  Spirits,  but  assigned  to  them  distinct 
83 


84  OF   ANGELS  AND   ARCHANGELS 

vocations  and  distinct  appellations,  each  terminating  with  the 
syllable  El,  which  signifies  God.     Thus  we  have  — 

I.  MICHAEL  (i.  e.  who  is  like  unto  God),  captain-general  of 
the  host  of  heaven,  and  protector  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 

II.  GABRIEL  (i.  e.  God  is  my  strength),  guardian  of  the 
celestial  treasury,  and  preceptor  of  the  patriarch  Joseph. 

III.  RAPHAEL  (I.  e.  the  Medicine  of  God),  the  conductor 
of  Tobit ;  thence  the  chief  guardian  angel. 

IV.  URIEL  (i.  e.  the  Light  of  God),  who  taught  Esdras. 
He  was  also  regent  of  the  sun. 

V.  CHAMUEL  (i.  e.  one  who  sees   God  ?),   who   wrestled 
with  Jacob,  and  who  appeared  to  Christ  at  Gethsemane.     (But, 
according  to  other  authorities,  this  was  the  angel  Gabriel.) 

VI.  JOPHIEL  (i.  e.  the  Beauty  of  God),  who  was  the  pre- 
ceptor of  the  sons  of  Noah,  and  is  the  protector  of  all  those 
who,  with  an  humble  heart,  seek  after  truth,  and  the  enemy 
of  those  who  pursue  vain  knowledge.     Thus  Jophiel  was  nat- 
urally considered  as  the  guardian  of  the  tree  of  knowledge, 
and  the  same  who  drove  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise. 

VII.  ZADKIEL  (i.  e.  the  Righteousness  of  God),  who  stayed 
the  hand  of  Abraham  when  about  to  sacrifice  his  son.      (But, 
according  to  other  authorities,  this  was  the  archangel  Michael.) 

The  Christian  Church  does  not  acknowledge  these  Seven 
Angels  by  name  ;  neither  in  the  East,  where  the  worship  of 
angels  took  deep  root,  nor  yet  in  the  West,  where  it  has  been 
tacitly  accepted.  Nor  have  I  met  with  them  as  a  series,  by 
name,  in  any  ecclesiastical  work  of  Art,  though  I  have  seen  a 
set  of  old  anonymous  prints  in  which  they  appear  with  distinct 
names  and  attributes :  Michael  bears  the  sword  and  scales ; 
Gabriel,  the  lily  ;  Raphael,  the  pilgrim's  staff  and  gourd  full 
of  water,  as  a  traveller.  Uriel  has  a  roll  and  a  book :  he  is 
the  interpreter  of  judgments  and  prophecies,  and  for  this 
purpose  was  sent  to  Esdras :  "  The  angel  that  was  sent  unto 
me,  whose  name  was  Uriel,  gave  me  an  answer."  (Esdras  ii. 
4.)  And  in  Milton  — 

Uriel,  for  thou  of  those  Seven  Spirits  that  stand 
In  sight  of  God's  high  throne,  gloriously  bright, 
The  first  art  wont  his  great  authentic  will 
Interpreter  through  highest  heaven  to  bring. 

According  to  an  early  Christian  tradition,  it  was  this  angel, 


ARCHANGELS 


85 


ana  not  Christ  in  person,  who  accompanied  the  two  disciples 
to  Emmaus.  Chamuel  is  represented  with  a  ciip  and  a  staff ; 
Jophiel  with  a  naming  sword.  Zadkiel  bears  the  sacrificial 
knife  which  he  took  from  the  hand  of  Abraham. 

But  the  Seven  Angels,  without  being  distinguished  by  name, 
are  occasionally  introduced  into  works  of  art.     For  example, 


Archangels  (attributed  to  Orcagna) 

over  the  arch  of  the  choir  in  San  Michele,  at  Eavenna  (A.  D. 
545),  on  each  side  of  the  throned  Saviour  are  the  Seven  An- 
gels blowing  trumpets  like  cow's  horns :  "  And  I  saw  the 
Seven  Angels  which  stand  before  God,  and  to  them  were  given 
seven  trumpets."  (Rev.  viii.  2,  6.)  In  representations  of 
the  Crucifixion  and  in  the  Pieta,  the  Seven  Angels  are  often 
seen  in  attendance,  bearing  the  instruments  of  the  Passior 


86  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

Michael  bears  the  cross,  for  he  is  "  the  Bannerer  of  heaven  ;  " 
but  I  do  not  feel  certain  of  the  particular  avocations  of  the 
others. 

In  the  Last  Judgment,  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  the 
Seven  Angels  are  active  and  important  personages.  The  angel 
who  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  below  the  throne  of 
Christ,  extends  a  scroll  in  each  hand ;  on  that  in  the  right 
hand  is  inscribed  "  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,"  and  on 
that  in  the  left  hand,  "  Depart  from  me,  ye  accursed :  "  him  I 
suppose  to  be  Michael,  the  angel  of  judgment.  At  his  feet 
crouches  an  angel  who  seems  to  shrink  from  the  tremendous 
spectacle,  and  hides  his  face :  him  I  suppose  to  be  Raphael, 
the  guardian  angel  of  humanity.  The  attitude  has  always 
been  admired  —  cowering  with  horror,  yet  sublime.  Beneath 
are  other  five  angels,  who  are  engaged  in  separating  the  just 
from  the  wicked,  encouraging  and  sustaining  the  former,  and 
driving  the  latter  towards  the  demons  who  are  ready  to  snatch 
them  into  flames.  These  Seven  Angels  have  the  garb  of 
princes  and  warriors,  with  breastplates  of  gold,  jewelled  sword- 
belts  and  tiaras,  rich  mantles;  while  the  other  angels  who 
figure  in  the  same  scene  are  plumed  and  bird-like,  and  hover 
above,  bearing  the  instruments  of  the  Passion. 

Again  we  may  see  the  Seven  Angels  in  quite  another  char- 
acter, attending  on  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  a  picture  [attrib- 
uted to]  Taddeo  Gaddi  (A.  D.  1352,  Florence,  S.  Maria  No- 
vella [Spanish  chapel]).  Here,  instead  of  the  instruments  of 
the  Passion,  they  bear  the  allegorical  attributes  of  those  virtues 
for  which  that  famous  saint  and  doctor  is  to  be  reverenced  : 
one  bears  an  olive-branch,  i.  e.  Peace ;  the  second,  a  book,  i.  e. 
Knowledge ;  the  third,  a  crown  and  sceptre,  i.  e.  Power ;  the 
fourth,  a  church,  *.  e.  Religion  ;  the  fifth,  a  cross  and  shield, 
'/.  e.  Faith  ;  the  sixth,  flames  of  fire  in  each  hand,  i.  e.  Piety 
and  Charity  ;  the  seventh,  a  lily,  i.  e.  Purity. 

In  general  it  may  be  presumed  when  seven  angels  figure 
together,  or  are  distinguished  from  among  a  host  of  angels  by 
dress,  stature,  or  other  attributes,  that  these  represent  "  the 
Seven  Holy  Angels  who  stand  in  the  presence  of  God."  Four 
only  of  these  Seven  Angels  are  individualized  by  name,  Mi- 
chael, Gabriel,  Raphael,  and  Uriel.  According  to  the  Jewish 
tradition,  these  four  sustain  the  throne  of  the  Almighty  :  they 
have  the  Greek  epithet  arch,  or  chief,  assigned  to  them,  from 


ARCHANGELS 


87 


Angels  (attributed  to  Orcagna) 

the  two  texts  of  Scripture  in  which  that  title  is  used  (1  Thess. 
iv.  16  ;  Jude  9)  ;  but  only  the  three  first,  who  in  Scripture 
have  a  distinct  personality,  are  reverenced  in  the  Catholic 
Church  as  saints  ;  and  their  gracious  heauty,  and  their  divine 
prowess,  and  their  high  behests  to  mortal  man,  have  furnished 
some  of  the  most  important  and  most  poetical  subjects  which 
appear  in  Christian  Art. 

The  earliest  instance  I  have  met  of  the  Archangels  intro- 
duced by  name  into  a  work  of  art  is  in  the  old  church  of  San 
Michele  at  Ravenna  (A.  r>.  545).  The  mosaic  in  the  apse 
exhibits  Christ  in  the  centre,  bearing  in  one  hand  the  cross  as 
a  trophy  or  sceptre,  and  in  the  other  an  open  book  on  which 
are  the  words,  "  Qui  videt  me  videt  et  Patrem  meum"  [John 
xiv.  9].  On  each  side  stand  Michael  and  Gabriel,  with  vast 
wings  and  long  sceptres ;  their  names  are  inscribed  above,  but 
without  the  Sanctus  and  without  the  Glory.  It  appears, 
therefore,  that  at  this  time,  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  the 
title  of  Saint,  though  in  use,  had  not  been  given  to  the  Arch- 
angels. 

When,  in  the  ancient  churches,  the  figure  of  Christ  or  of 
the  Lamb  appears  in  a  circle  of  glory  in  the  centre  of  the 
roof ;  and  around,  or  at  the  four  corners,  four  angels  who 


88  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

sustain  the  circle  with  outstretched  arms,  or  stand  as  watchers, 
with  sceptres  or  lances  in  their  hands,  these  I  presume  to  be 
the  four  Archangels  "  who  sustain  the  throne  of  God."  Ex- 
amples may  he  seen  in  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna ;  in  the  chapel 
of  San  Zeno,  in  Santa  Prassede  at  Rome ;  and  on  the  roof  of 
the  choir  of  San  Francesco  d'Assisi. 

So  the  four  Archangels,  stately  colossal  figures,  winged  and 
armed  and  sceptred,  stand  over  the  arch  of  the  choir  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Monreale,  at  Palermo.  (Greek  mosaic,  A.  D.  1174.) 

So  the  four  angels  stand  at  the  four  corners  of  the  earth 
(Rev.  vii.  1)  and  hold  the  winds,  heads  with  puffed  cheeks 
and  dishevelled  hair.  (MS.  of  the  Book  of  Revelation,  four- 
teenth century,  Trinity  College,  Dublin.) 

But  I  have  never  seen  Uriel  represented  by  name,  or  alone, 
in  any  sacred  edifice.  In  the  picture  of  Uriel  painted  by 
Allston,  he  is  the  "Regent  of  the  Sun,"  as  described  by 
Milton ;  not  a  sacred  or  scriptural  personage.  (Coll.  of  the 
Duke  of  Sutherland.)  On  a  shrine  of  carved  ivory  (Hotel  de 
Cluny  [Paris])  I  have  seen  the  four  Archangels  as  keeping 
guard,  two  at  each  end  ;  the  three  first  are  named,  as  usual, 
St.  Michael,  St.  Gabriel,  St.  Raphael ;  the  fourth  is  styled  St. 
Cherubin  ;•  and  I  have  seen  the  same  name  inscribed  over  the 
head  of  the  angel  who  expels  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise. 
There  is  no  authority  for  such  an  appellation  applied  individ- 
ually ;  but  I  find,  in  a  famous  legend  of  the  middle  ages, 
"  La  Penitence  d'Adam,"  that  the  angel  who  guards  the  gates 
of  Paradise  is  thus  designated :  "  Lorsque  1'Ange  Chdrubin 
vit  arriver  Seth  aux  portes  de  Paradis,"  etc.  The  four  Arch- 
angels, however,  seldom  occur  together,  except  in  architectural 
decoration.  On  the  other  hand,  devotional  pictures  of  the 
three  Archangels  named  in  the  canonical  Scriptures  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence.  They  are  often  grouped  together  as  patron 
saints  or  protecting  spirits ;  or  they  stand  round  the  throne  of 
Christ,  or  below  the  glorified  Virgin  and  Child,  in  an  attitude 
of  adoration.  According  to  the  Greek  formula,  the  three  in 
combination  represent  the  triple  power,  military,  civil,  and 
religious,  of  the  celestial  hierarchy  :  St.  Michael  being  hab- 
ited as  a  warrior,  Gabriel  as  a  prince,  and  Raphael  as  a 
priest.  In  a  Greek  picture,  the  three  Archangels  sustain  in  a 
kind  of  throne  the  figure  of  the  youthful  Christ,  here  winged, 
as  being  Himself  the  supreme  Angel  (  ayyeXos),  and  with  both 


ST.    MICHAEL  89 

hands  blessing  the  universe.  The  Archangel  Raphael  has 
here  the  place  of  dignity  as  representing  the  Priesthood ;  but 
in  Western  Art  Michael  takes  precedence  of  the  two  others, 
and  is  usually  placed  in  the  centre  as  Prince  or  Chief  :  with 
him,  then,  as  considered  individually,  we  begin. 


ST.  MICHAEL 

Lat.  Sanctus  Michael  Angelas.     Hal.  San  Michele,  Sammichele. 
Fr.  Monseigneur  Saint  Michel.     (Sept.  29.) 

"Michael,  the  Great  Prince  that  standeth  for  the  children  of  thy  people."  — 
Dan.  xii.  1. 

It  is  difficult  to  clothe  in  adequate  language  the  divine 
attributes  with  which  painting  and  poetry  have  invested  this 
illustrious  archangel.  Jews  and  Christians  are  agreed  in 
giving  him  the  preeminence  over  all  created  spirits.  All  the 
might,  the  majesty,  the  radiance,  of  Thrones,  Dominations, 
Princedoms,  Virtues,  Powers,  are  centred  in  him.  In  him  God 
put  forth  His  strength  when  He  exalted  him  chief  over  the 
celestial  host,  when  angels  warred  with  angels  in  heaven ;  and 
in  him  God  showed  forth  His  glory  when  He  made  him  con- 
queror over  the  power  of  sin,  and  "  over  the  great  dragon  that 
deceived  the  world." 

To  the  origin  of  the  worship  paid  to  this  great  Archangel  I 
dare  not  do  more  than  allude,  lest  I  stray  wide  from  my 
subject,  and  lose  myself,  and  my  readers  too,  in  labyrinths  of 
Orientalism.  But,  in  considering  the  artistic  representations, 
it  is  interesting  to  call  to  mind  that  the  glorification  of  St. 
Michael  may  be  traced  back  to  that  primitive  Eastern  dogma, 
the  perpetual  antagonism  between  the  Spirit  of  Good  and  the 
Spirit  of  Evil,  mixed  up  with  the  Chaldaic  belief  in  angels 
and  their  influence  over  the  destinies  of  man.  It  was  subse- 
quent to  the  Captivity  that  the  active  Spirit  of  Good,  under 
the  name  of  Michael,  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  especial 
protector  of  the  Hebrew  natibn  ;  the  veneration  paid  to  him 
by  the  Jews  was  adopted,  or  rather  retained,  by  the  Oriental 
Christians,  and,  though  suppressed  for  a  time,  was  revived  and 
spread  over  the  West,  where  we  find  it  popular  and  almost 
universal  from  the  eighth  century. 


90  OF  ANGELS   AND   AKCHANGELS 

The  legends  which  have  grown  out  of  a  few  mystical  texts 
of  Scripture,  amplified  by  the  fanciful  disquisitions  of  the  theo- 
logical writers,  place  St.  Michael  before  us  in  three  great 
characters :  1.  As  captain  of  the  heavenly  hosts,  and  con- 
queror of  the  powers  of  hell.  2.  As  lord  of  souls,  conductor 
and  guardian  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  3.  As  patron  saint 
and  prince  of  the  Church  Militant. 

When  Lucifer,  possessed  by  the  spirit  of  pride  and  ingrati- 
tude, refused  to  fall  down  and  worship  the  Son  of  man, 
Michael  was  deputed  to  punish  his  insolence,  and  to  cast  him 
out  from  heaven.  Then  Michael  chained  the  revolted  angels 
in  middle  air,  where  they  are  to  remain  till  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, being  in  the  mean  time  perpetually  tortured  by  hate, 
envy,  and  despair ;  for  they  behold  man,  whom  they  had  dis- 
dained, exalted  as  their  superior  ;  above  them  they  see  the 
heaven  they  have  forfeited  ;  and  beneath  them  the  redeemed 
souls  continually  rising  from  earth,  and  ascending  to  the  pres- 
ence of  God,  whence  they  are  shut  out  forever. 

"  Now,"  says  the  old  Legend  (vide  II  perfetto  Legendario, 
1659),  "  if  it  be  asked  wherefore  the  books  of  Moses,  in  re- 
vealing the  disobedience  and  the  fall  of  man,  are  silent  as  to 
the  revolt  and  the  fall  of  the  angels,  the  reason  is  plain  ;  and 
in  this  God  acted  according  to  His  wisdom.  For,  let  us  sup- 
pose that  a  certain  powerful  lord  had  two  vassals,  both  guilty 
of  the  prime  of  treason,  and  one  of  these  is  a  nobleman  of  pure 
and  lofty  lineage,  and  the  other  a  base-born  churl,  —  what 
doth  this  lord  ?  He  hangs  up  the  churl  in  the  market-place 
as  a  warning  and  example  to  others :  but,  for  the  nobleman, 
fearing  the  scandal  that  may  arise  among  the  people,  and 
perhaps  also  some  insult  to  the  officers  of  the  law,  the  judge 
causes  him  to  be  tried  secretly,  and  shuts  him  up  in  a  dun- 
geon ;  and  when  judgment  is  pronounced  against  him,  he 
sends  to  his  prison,  and  puts  him  privily  to  death ;  and  when 
one  asketh  after  him,  the  answer  is  only  '  He  is  dead,'  and 
nothing  more.  Thus  did  God  in  respect  to  the  rebel  angels 
of  old  ;  and  their  fate  was  not  revealed  until  the  redemption 
of  man  was  accomplished." 

This  passage  from  the  old  Italian  legend  is  so  curiously 
characteristic  of  the  feudal  spirit  of  Christianity  in  the  middle 
ages,  that  I  have  ventured  to  insert  it  verbatim.  If  religion 
did,  in  some  degree,  modify  the  institutions  of  chivalry,  in  a 


ST.    MICHAEL  91 

much  greater  degree  did  the  ruling  prejudices  of  a  barbarian 
age  modify  the  popular  ideas  of  religion.  Here,  notwithstand- 
ing the  primary  doctrine  of  Christ,  —  the  equality  of  all  men 
before  God,  —  we  have  the  distinction  between  noble  and 
churl  carried  into  the  very  councils  of  Heaven. 

But,  to  return  to  St.  Michael,  on  whom,  as  the  leader  of 
His  triumphant  hosts,  God  bestowed  many  and  great  privi- 
leges. To  him  it  was  given 

To  bid  sound  th'  archangel  trumpet, 

and  exalt  the  banner  of  the  Cross  in  the  day  of  judgment ; 
and  to  him  likewise  was  assigned  the  reception  of  the  immor- 
tal spirits  when  released  by  death.  It  was  his  task  to  weigh 
them  in  a  balance  (Dan.  v.  27  ;  Ps.  Ixii.  9)  :  those  whose 
good  works  exceeded  their  demerits,  he  presented  before  the 
throne  of  God  ;  but  those  who  were  found  wanting  he  gave 
up  to  be  tortured  in  purgatory,  until  their  souls,  from  being 
"as  crimson,  should  become  as  white  as  snow."  Therefore, 
in  the  hour  of  death,  he  is  to  be  invoked  by  the  faithful, 
saying,  "  0  Michael,  militice  ccelestis  signifer,  in  adjutorium 
nostrum  veni,  princeps  et  propugnator  !  " 

Lastly,  when  it  pleased  the  Almighty  to  select  from  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth  one  people  to  become  peculiarly  His 
own,  He  appointed  St.  Michael  to  be  president  and  leader 
over  that  chosen  people.1  "  At  that  time  shall  Michael  stand 
up,  the  great  prince  which  standeth  for  the  children  of  thy 
people  •''  (Dan.  x.  13,  xii.  1)  :  and  when  the  power  of  the 
Synagogue  was  supposed  to  cease,  and  to  be  replaced  by  the 
power  of  the  Church,  so  that  the  Christians  became  the  peo- 
ple of  God,  then  Michael,  who  had  been  the  great  prince  of 
the  Hebrew  people,  became  the  prince  and  leader  of  the 
Church  militant  in  Christendom,  and  the  guardian  of  redeemed 
souls  against  his  old  adversary  the  Prince  of  Hell.  (Rev. 
xii.  C,  7.) 

1  The  Gnostics  taught  that  the  universe  was  created  by  the  Seven  Great 
Angels,  who  ranked  next  to  the  Enos,  or  direct  emanations  from  God:  "and 
when  a  distribution  was  afterwards  made  of  things,  the  chief  of  the  creating 
angels  had  the  people  of  the  Jews  particularly  to  his  share  ;  a  doctrine  which 
in  the- main  was  received  by  many  ancients."  See  Lardner's  History  of  the 
Early  Heresies.  I  have  alluded  to  the  angel  pictured  as  the  agent  in  crea- 
tion, but  the  Seven  creating  Angels  I  have  not  met  with  in  art.  This  was  one 
of  the  Gnostic  fancies  condemned  by  the  early  Church. 


92  OF   ANGELS   AND   AKCHANGELS 

The  worship  paid  to  St.  Michael,  and  which  originated  in 
the  far  East,  is  supposed  to  have  been  adopted  by  the  Oriental 
Christians  in  consequence  of  a  famous  apparition  of  the  Arch- 
angel at  Colossse,  in  Phrygia,  which  caused  him  to  be  held  in 
especial  honor  by  the  people  of  that  city,  and  perhaps  occa- 
sioned the  particular  warning  of  St.  Paul  addressed  to  the 
Colossians.  But  although  the  worship  of  angels  was  consid- 
ered among  the  heresies  of  the  early  Church,  we  find  Constan- 
tine  no  sooner  master  of  the  empire,  and  a  baptized  Christian, 
than  he  dedicates  a  church  to  the  Archangel  Michael  (by  his 
Greek  name  Michaelion),  and  this  church,  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  in  Constantinople,  became  renowned  for  its  mira- 
cles, and  the  parent  and  model  of  hundreds  more  throughout 
the  East. 

In  the  West,  the  honors  paid  to  St.  Michael  are  of  later 
date :  that  a  church  dedicated  to  him  must  have  existed  in 
Rome  long  before  the  year  500  seems  clear,  because  at  that 
time  it  is  mentioned  as  having  fallen  into  ruin.  But  the  West 
had  its  angelic  apparitions  as  well  as  the  East,  and  St.  Michael 
owes  his  widespread  popularity  in  the  middle  ages  to  three 
famous  visions  which  are  thus  recorded. 

In  the  fifth  century,  in  the  city  of  Siponte,  in  Apulia  (now 
Manfredonia),  dwelt  a  man  named  Galgano  or  Garganus,  very 
rich  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  beasts  ;  and  as  they  pastured  on  the 
sides  of  the  mountain,  it  happened  that  a  bull  strayed  and 
came  not  home  ;  then  the  rich  man  took  a  multitude  of  ser- 
vants and  sought  the  bull,  and  found  him  at  the  entrance  of  a 
cave  on  the  very  summit  of  the  mountain,  and,  being  wroth 
with  the  bull,  the  master  ordered  him  to  be  slain  ;  but  when 
the  arrow  was  sent  from  the  bow  it  returned  to  the  bosom  of 
him  who  sent  it,  and  he  fell  dead  on  the  ground :  then  the 
master  and  his  servants  were  troubled,  and  they  sent  to  inquire 
of  the  bishop  what  should  be  done.  The  bishop,  having 
fasted  and  prayed  three  days,  beheld  in  a  vision  the  glorious 
Archangel  Michael,  who  descended  on  the  mountain,  and  told 
him  that  the  servant  had  been  slain  because  he  had  violated  a 
spot  peculiarly  sacred  to  him,  and  he  commanded  that  a  church 
should  be  erected  and  sanctified  there  to  his  honor.  And  when 
they  entered  the  cavern  they  found  there  three  altars  already 
erected,  one  of  them  covered  with  a  rich  embroidered  altar- 
cloth  of  crimson  and  gold,  and  a  stream  of  limpid  water  spring- 


ST.    MICHAEL  93 

ing  from  the  rock,  which  healed  all  diseases.  So  the  church 
was  built,  and  the  fame  of  the  vision  of  Monte  Galgano,  though 
for  some  time  confined  to  the  south  of  Italy,  spread  throughout 
Europe,  and  many  pilgrimages  were  made  to  the  spot  on  which 
the  angelic  footsteps  had  alighted. 

The  second  vision  is  much  more  imposing.  When  Rome 
was  nearly  depopulated  by  a  pestilence  in  the  sixth  century, 
St.  Gregory,  afterwards  pope,  advised  that  a  procession  should 
be  made  through  the  streets  of  the  city,  singing  the  service 
since  called  the  Great  Litanies.  He  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  faithful,  and  during  three  days  they  perambulated 
the  city ;  and  on  the  third  day,  when  they  had  arrived  oppo- 
site to  the  mole  of  Hadrian,  Gregory  beheld  the  Archangel 
Michael  alight  on  the  summit  of  that  monument,  and  sheathe 
his  sword,  bedropped  with  blood.  Then  Gregory  knew  that 
the  plague  was  stayed,  and  a  church  was  there  dedicated  to  the 
honor  of  the  Archangel :  and  the  Tomb  of  Hadrian  has  since 
been  called  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  to  this  day. 

This,  of  all  the  recorded  apparitions  of  St.  Michael,  is  the 
only  one  which  can  be  called  poetical ;  it  is  evidently  borrowed 
from  the  vision  of  the  destroying  angel  in  Scripture.  As  early 
as  the  ninth  century,  a  church  or  chapel  dedicated  to  St. 
Michael  was  erected  on  the  summit  of  the  huge  monument, 
which  at  that  time  must  have  preserved  much  of  its  antique 
magnificence.  The  church  was  entitled  Ecdesia  Sancti  Anyeli 
usque  ad  Ccelos.  The  bronze  statue,  which  in  memory  of  this 
miracle  now  surmounts  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  was  placed 
there  in  recent  times  by  Benedict  XIV.,  and  is  the  work  of  a 
Flemish  sculptor,  Verschaffelt.  I  suppose  no  one  ever  looked 
at  this  statue  critically  —  at  least,  for  myself,  I  never  could  : 
nor  can  I  remember  now,  whether,  as  a  work  of  art,  it  is  above 
or  below  criticism ;  perhaps  both.  With  its  vast  wings,  poised 
in  air,  as  seen  against  the  deep  blue  skies  of  Rome,  or  lighted 
up  by  the  golden  sunset,  to  me  it  WAS  ever  like  what  it  was 
intended  to  represent  —  like  a  vision. 

A  third  apparition  was  that  accorded  to  Aubert,  bishop  of 
Avranches  (A.  D.  706).  T^iis  holy  man  seems  to  have  been 
desirous  to  attract  to  his  own  diocese  a  portion  of  that  sanctity 
(and  perhaps  other  advantages)  which  Monte  Galgano  derived 
from  the  worship  of  St.  Michael.  In  the  Gulf  of  Avranches, 
in  Normandy,  stands  a  lofty  isolated  rock  inaccessible  from  the 


94  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

land  at  high  water,  and  for  ages  past  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  and  state  prisons  in  France.  In  the  reign 
of  Childebert  II.,  St.  Aubert,  bishop  of  Avranches,  had  a 
vision,  in  which  the  Archangel  Michael  commanded  him  to 
repair  to  this  rock,  then  the  terror  of  mariners,  and  erect  a 
church  to  his  honor  on  the  highest  point,  where  a  bull  would 
be  found  concealed,  and  it  was  to  cover  as  much  space  as  the 
bull  had  trampled  with  his  hoofs ;  he  also  discovered  to  the 
bishop  a  well-spring  of  pure  water,  which  had  before  been  un- 
known. As  the  bishop  treated  this  command  as  a  dream,  the 
Archangel  appeared  to  him  a  second  and  a  third  time  ;  and  at 
length,  to  impress  it  on  his  waking  memory,  he  touched  his 
head  with  his  thumb,  and  made  a  mark  or  hole  in  his  skull, 
which  he  carried  to  the  grave.  This  time  the  bishop  obeyed, 
and  a  small  church  was  built  on  the  spot  indicated  ;  afterwards 
replaced  by  the  magnificent  Abbey  Church,  which  was  begun 
by  Richard  duke  of  Normandy,  in  966,  and  finished  by  William 
the  Conqueror.  The  poverty  of  invention  shown  in  this  legend, 
which  is  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  that  of  Monte  Gal- 
gano,  is  very  disappointing  to  the  fancy,  considering  the  cele- 
brity of  Mont  Saint  Michel  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  and  as  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  objects  in  European  scenery,  with  its 
massive  towers,  which  have  braved  the  tempests  of  a  thousand 
years,  rising  from  the  summit  of  the  peak,  and  the  sea  wel- 
tering round  its  base.  It  failed  not,  however,  in  the  effect 
anticipated.  The  worship  of  St.  Michael  became  popular  in 
France  from  the  ninth  century  ;  the  Archangel  was  selected  as 
patron  saint  of  France,  and  of  the  military  order  instituted  in 
his  honor  by  Louis  XI.  in  1469.  The  worship  paid  to  St. 
Michael  as  patron  saint  of  Normandy  naturally  extended  itself 
to  England  after  the  Norman  conquest,  and  churches  dedicated 
to  this  archangel  abound  in  all  the  towns  and  cities  along  the 
southern  and  eastern  shores  of  our  island  ;  we  also  have  a 
Mount  St.  Michael  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall,  in  situation  and 
in  name  resembling  that  on  the  coast  of  France.  At  this  day 
there  are  few  cities  in  Christendom  which  do  not  contain  a 
church  or  churches  dedicated  to  St.  Michael,  some  of  them  of 
great  antiquity. 

I  must  not  omit  that  St.  Michael  is  considered  as  the  angel 
of  good  counsel ;  that  "  Le  vrai  office  de  Monseigneur  Saint 
Michel  est  de  faire  grandes  revelations  aux  hommes  en  has,  en 


ST.   MICHAEL 


95 


leur  donnant  moult  saints  conseils,"  and  in  particular,  "  sur  le 
bon  nourissement  que  le  pere  et  la  mere  donnent  a  leurs  en- 
fans."     (Le  Livre  des  Angeles  de 
Dieu,  MS.,  Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.)     It 
is    to    be   regretted    that    "  Mon- 
seigneur    Saint    Michel "    should 
be   found    rather  remiss  in    this 
part  of  his  angelic  functions. 

We  shall  now  see  how  far 
these  various  traditions  and  popu- 
lar notions  concerning  St.  Michael 
have  been  carried  out  in  Art. 

In  all  representations  of  St. 
Michael,  the  leading  idea,  well  or 
ill  expressed,  is  the  same.  He 
is  young  and  beautiful,  but  "  se- 
vere in  youthful  beauty,"  as  one 
who  carries  on  a  perpetual  con- 
test with  the  powers  of  evil.  In 
the  earlier  works  of  art  he  is  robed 
in  white,  with  ample  many-col- 
ored wings,  and  bears  merely  the 
sceptre  or  the  lance  surmounted 
by  a  cross,  as  one  who  conquered 
by  spiritual  might  alone.  But  in 
the  later  representations,  those 
colored  by  the  spirit  of  chivalry, 
he  is  the  angelic  Paladin,  armed 
in  a  dazzling  coat  of  mail,  with 
sword,  and  spear,  and  shield.  He 
has  a  lofty  open  brow,  long  fair 
hair  floating  on  his  shoulders, 
sometimes  bound  by  a  jewelled 
tiara ;  sometimes,  but  not  often, 
shaded  by  a  helmet.  From  his 
shoulders  spring  two  resplendent 
wings.  Thus  we  see  him  standing 

by  the  throne  of  the  Madonna,  or  worshipping  at  the  feet  of 
the  Divine  Infant ;  an  exquisite  allegory  of  spiritual  and  intel- 
lectual power  protecting  purity  and  adoring  innocence. 

There  is  a  most  beautiful  little  figure  by  Angelico,  of  St. 


St.  Michael  (Angelico) 


96  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

Michael  standing  in  his  character  of  archangel  and  patron  of 
the  Church  Militant,  "  as  the  winged  saint ; "  no  demon,  no 
attribute  except  the  lance  and  shield.  The  attitude,  so  tran- 
quilly elegant,  may  be  seen  in  this  sketch.  In  the  original  the 
armor  is  of  a  dark  crimson  and  gold,  the  wings  are  of  rain- 
bow tints,  vivid  and  delicate ;  a  flame  of  lambent  fire  rests 
on  the  brow.  [The  figure  is  one  of  a  series  of  panels  let  into 
the  frame  of  Angelico's  Deposition,  in  the  Florence  Academy.] 

But  the  single  devotional  figures  of  St.  Michael  usually 
represent  him  as  combining  the  two  great  characters  of  captain 
of  the  heavenly  host  and  conqueror  of  the  powers  of  hell. 
He  stands  armed,  setting  his  foot  on  Lucifer,  either  in  the 
half-human  or  the  dragon  form,  and  is  about  to  transfix  him 
with  his  lance,  or  to  chain  him  down  in  the  infernal  abyss. 
Such,  however  varied  in  the  attitude,  expression,  and  acces- 
sories, is  the  most  frequent  and  popular  representation  of  St. 
Michael,  when-  placed  before  us,  as  the  universally  received 
emblem  of  the  final  victory  of  good  over  evil. 

In  those  churches  of  Christendom  which  have  not  been 
defaced  by  a  blind  destructive  zeal,  this  image  meets  us  at 
every  turn :  it  salutes  us  in  the  porch  as  we  enter,  or  it  shines 
upon  us  in  gorgeous  colors  from  the  window,  or  it  is  wreathed 
into  the  capitals  of  columns,  or  it  stands  in  its  holy  heroic 
beauty  over  the  altar.  It  is  so  common  and  so  in  harmony 
with  our  inmost  being,  that  we  rather  feel  its  presence  than 
observe  it.  It  is  the  visible,  palpable  reflection  of  that  great 
truth  stamped  into  our  very  souls,  and  shadowed  forth  in 
every  form  of  ancient  belief,  —  the  final  triumph  of  the  spirit- 
ual over  the  animal  and  earthly  part  of  our  nature.  This  is 
the  secret  of  its  perpetual  repetition,  and  this  the  secret  of 
the  untired  complacency  with  which  we  regard  it ;  for  even 
in  the  most  inefficient  attempts  at  expression  we  have  always 
the  leading  motif  distinct  and  true,  the  winged  virtue  is  al- 
ways victorious  above  and  the  bestial  vice  is  always  prostrate 
below  :  and  if  to  this  primal  moral  significance  be  added  all 
the  charm  of  poetry,  grace,  animated  movement  which  human 
genius  has  lavished  on  this  ever  blessed,  ever  welcome  sym- 
bol, then,  as  we  look  up  at  it,  we  are  "  not  only  touched,  but 
wakened  and  inspired,"  and  the  whole  delighted  imagination 
glows  with  faith  and  hope  and  grateful  triumphant  sympathy, 
—  so  at  least  I  have  felt,  and  I  must  believe  that  others  have 
felt  it  too. 


ST.   MICHAEL  97 

In  the  earliest  representations  of  this  subject,  we  see  the 
simplest  form  of  the  allegory,  literally  rendering  the  words  of 
Scripture,  "  The  dragon  shalt  thou  trample  under  foot."  (Ps. 
xci.  13.)  Here  there  is  no  risk  of  a  divided  interest  or  a  mis- 
directed sympathy.  The  demon,  grovelling  under  the  feet  of 
the  victorious  spirit,  is  not  the  star-bright  apostate  who  drew 
after  him  the  third  part  of  heaven ;  it  is  the  bestial  malignant 
reptile :  not  the  emblem  of  resistance,  but  the  emblem  of 
sin ;  not  of  the  sin  that  aspires,  which,  in  fact,  is  a  contra- 
diction in  terms,  —  no  sin  aspires,  —  but  of  the  sin  which 
degrades  and  brutifies,  as  all  sin  does.  In  the  later  represen- 
tations, where  the  demon  takes  the  half-human  shape,  however 
hideous  and  deformed,  the  allegory  may  so  be  brought  nearer 
to  us,  and  rendered  more  terrible  even  by  a  horrid  sympathy 
with  that  human  face,  grinning  in  despite  and  agony ;  but 
much  of  the  beauty  of  the  scriptural  metaphor  is  lost.1 

The  representations  of  St.  Michael  and  the  dragon  are  so 
multifarious  that  I  can  only  select  a  few  among  them  as  exam- 
ples of  the  different  styles  of  treatment. 

The  symbol,  as  such,  is  supposed  to  have  originated  with  the 
Gnostics  and  Arians,  and  the  earliest  examples  are  to  be  found 
in  the  ancient  churches  on  the  western  coast  of  Italy  and  the 
old  Lombard  churches.  I  have  never  seen  it  in  the  old 
mosaics  of  the  sixth  century,  but  in  the  contemporary  sculpture 
frequently.  It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  the  most  ancient 
example,  such  is  the  confusion  of  dates  as  regards  dedications, 
restorations,  alterations ;  but  I  remember  a  carving  in  white 
marble  on  the  porch  of  the  Cathedral  of  Cortona  (aboufr  the 
seventh  century),  which  may  be  regarded  as  an  example  of 
this  primitive  style  of  treatment. 

Another  instance  will  be  remembered  by  the  traveller  in 
Italy,  the  strange  antique  bas-relief  on  the  facade  of  that 
extraordinary  old  church,  the  San  Michele  at  Pavia ;  not  the 

1  Dr.  Arnold  has  some  characteristic  remarks  on  the  half-human  effigies  of 
Satan;  he  objects  to  the JVIiltonic  representation:  "By  giving  a  human 
likeness,  and  representing  nim  as  a  bad  man,  you  necessarily  get  some  image 
of  what  is  good,  as  well  as  of  what  is  bad,  for  no  man  is  entirely  evil." 
"  The  hoofs,  the  horns,  the  tail,  were  all  useful  in  this  way,  as  giving  you  an 
image  of  something  altogether  disgusting  ;  and  so  Mephistopheles,  and  the 
Utterly  contemptible  and  hateful  character  of  the  Little  Master  in  Sintram, 
are  far  more  true  than  the  Paradise  Last."  Life,  vol.  ii. 


98 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


figure  in  the  porch,  which  is  modern,  but  that  which  is  above. 
In  the  Menologium  Grecum  is  a  St.  Michael  standing  with  a 
long  sceptre,  a  majestic  colossal  figure,  while  kneeling  angels 
adore  him,  and  the  demons  crouch  under  his  feet.  (Vatican 
MSS.,  A.  D.  989.) 

By  Martin   Schoen :  St.    Michael,  attired  in  a  long  loose 
robe  and   floating  mantle,  tramples   on   the   demon;    he  has 


St.  Michael  (Martin  Schoen) 

thrown  down  the  shield,  and  with  his*  lance  in  both  hands, 
but  without  effort,  and  even  with  a  calm  angelic  dignity,  pre- 
pares to  transfix  his  adversary.  The  figure  is  singularly  ele- 
gant. The  demon  has  not  here  the  usual  form  of  a  dragon, 
but  is  a  horrible  nondescript  reptile,  with  multitudinous  flexile 


ST.   MICHAEL  99 

claws,  like  those  of  a  crab,  stretched  out  to  seize  and  entangle 
the  unwary ;  —  for  an  emblematical  figure,  very  significant. 
In  an  old  fresco  by  Guariente  di  Padova  (A.  r>.  1365.  Eremi- 
tani,  Padua),  the  angel  is  draped  as  in  Martin  Schoen's  figure, 
but  the  attitude  is  far  less  elegant. 

Sometimes  the  dragon  has  a  small  head  at  the  end  of  his 
tail,  instead  of  the  forked  sting.  I  recollect  an  instance  of 
St.  Michael  transfixing  the  large  head,  while  a  smaller  angel, 
also  armed,  transfixes  the  other  head.  (Greek  Apocalypse, 
MS.,  Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.)  This  is  an  attempt  to  render  literally 
the  description  in  the  Apocalypse :  "  For  their  power  is  in 
their  mouth,  and  in  their  tails :  for  their  tails  were  like  unto 
serpents,  and  had  heads,  and  with  them  they  do  hurt."  (Rev. 
ix.  19.)  In  a  most  elegant  figure  of  St.  Michael,  from  the 
choir  of  the  San  Giovanni,  at  Malta,  I  found  the  demon  thus 
characterized,  with  a  tail  ending  in  the  serpent  head. 

In  an  old  Siena  picture  (Siena  Academy),  St.  Michael  is 
seated  on  a  throne :  in  one  hand  a  sword,  in  the  other  the  orb 
of  sovereignty ;  under  his  feet  lies  the  dragon  mangled  and 
bleeding  :  a  bad  picture,  but  curious  for  the  singular  treatment. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  these  figures  of  St.  Michael  become 
less  ideal  and  angelic,  and  more  and  more  chivalrous  and  pic- 
turesque. In  a  beautiful  altar-piece  by  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
now  in  the  Florence  Academy,  there  is  a  fine  martial  figure 
of  the  Archangel,  which,  but  for  the  wings,  might  be  mis- 
taken for  a  St.  George ;  and  in  the  predella  underneath,  on 
a  small  scale,  he  is  conqueror  of  the  demon.  The  peculiarity 
here  is,  that  the  demon,  though  vanquished,  makes  a  vain. 
struggle,  and  has  seized  hold  of  the  belt  of  the  angel,  who, 
with  uplifted  sword,  and  an  action  of  infinite  grace  and  dig- 
nity, looks  superior  down,  as  one  assured  of  victory. 

Raphael  has  given  us  three  figures  of  St.  Michael,  all  differ- 
ent, and  one  of  them  taking  rank  with  his  masterpieces. 

The  first  is  an  early  production,  painted  when  he  was  a 
youth  of  nineteen  or  twenty,  and  now  in  the  Louvre.  St. 
Michael,  armed  with  a  shield  on  which  is  a  red  cross,  his 
sword  raised  to  strike,  stands  with  one  foot  on  a  monster ; 
other  horrible  little  monsters,  like  figures  in  a  dream,  are 
around  him :  in  the  background  are  seen  the  hypocrites  and 
thieves  as  described  by  Dante;  the  first,  in  melancholy  pro- 
cession, Aveighed  down  with  leaden  cowls ;  ,'jhe  others,  tor- 


100  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

mented  by  snakes  :  and,  in  the  distance,  the  flaming  dolorous 
city.  St.  Michael  is  here  the  vanquisher  of  the  Vices.  It  is 
a  curious  and  fantastic,  rather  than  poetical,  little  picture. 

The  second  picture,1  also  in  the  Louvre,  was  painted  by 
Raphael,  in  the  maturity  of  his  talent,  for  Francis  I. :  the 
king  had  left  to  him  the  choice  of  the  subject,  and  he  selected 
St.  Michael,  the  niilitary  patron  of  France,  and  of  that  knightly 
Order  of  which  the  king  was  Grand  Master. 

St.  Michael  —  not  standing,  but  hovering  on  his  poised 
wings,  and  grasping  his  lance  in  both  hands  —  sets  one  foot 
lightly  on  the  shoulder  of  the  demon,  who,  prostrate,  writhes 
up,  as  it  were,  and  tries  to  lift  his  head  and  turn  it  on  his 
conqueror  with  one  last  gaze  of  malignant  rage  and  despair. 
The  archangel  looks  down  upon  him  with  a  brow  calm  and 
serious ;  in  his  beautiful  face  is  neither  vengeance  nor  disdain 
—  in  his  attitude  no  effort ;  his  form,  a  model-  of  youthful 
grace  and  majesty,  is  clothed  in  a  brilliant  panoply  of  gold 
and  silver ;  an  azure  scarf  floats  on  his  shoulders ;  his  wide- 
spread wings  are  of  purple,  blue,  and  gold ;  his  light  hair  is 
raised,  and  floats  outward  on  each  side  of  his  head,  as  if  from 
the  swiftness  of  his  downward  motion.  The  earth  emits 
flames,  and  seems  opening  to  swallow  up  the  adversary.  The 
form  of  the  demon  is  human,  but  vulgar  in  its  proportions, 
and  of  a  swarthy  red,  as  if  fire-scathed ;  he  has  the  horns  and 
the  serpent-tail ;  but,  from  the  attitude  into  which  he  is 
thrown,  the  monstrous  form  is  so  fore-shortened  that  it  does 
not  disgust,  and  the  majestic  figure  of  the  archangel  fills  up 
nearly  the  whole  space  —  fills  the  eye  —  fills  the  soul  —  with 
its  victorious  beauty. 

That  Milton  had  seen  this  picture,  and  that  when  his  sight 
was  quenched  the  "  winged  saint "  revisited  him  in  his  dark- 
ness, who  can  doubt  ?  — 

Over  his  lucid  arms 
A  military  vest  of  purple  flowed 
Livelier  than  Melibcean,  or  the  grain 
Of  Sarra  worn  by  kings  and  heroes  old 
In  time  of  truce. 

By  his  side, 

As  in  a  glittering  zodiac,  hung  the  sword, 
Satan's  dire  dread,  and  in  his  hand  the  spear. 

i  [The  beauty  of  this  picture  is  seriously  injured  by  restorations,  made 
necessary  by  the  too  free  use  of  black  in  the  original  painting.] 


ST.   MICHAEL 


101 


St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  (Raphael) 


A  third  St.  Michael,  designed  by  Raphael,  exists  only  as  an 
engraving  (by  Marco  di  Ravenna.  Bartsch,  xiv.  106).  The 
angel  here  wears  a  helmet,  and  is  classically  draped  ;  he  stands 
in  an  attitude  of  repose,  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  the  demon ; 
one  hand  rests  on  the  pommel  of  his  sword,  the  other  holds 
the  lance. 


102  OF   ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS 

It  seems  agreed  that,  as  a  work  of  art,  there  is  only  the  St. 
Michael  of  Guido  (in  the  Cappuccini  at  Rome)  which  can  he 
compared  with  that  of  Raphael ;  the  moment  chosen  is  the 
same ;  the  treatment  nearly  the  same ;  the  sentiment  quite 
different. 

Here  the  angel,  standing,  yet  scarcely  touching  the  ground, 
poised  on  his  outspread  wings,  sets  his  left  foot  on  the  head  of 
his  adversary ;  in  one  hand  he  brandishes  a  sword,  in  the 
other  he  holds  the  end  of  a  chain,  with  which  he  is  about  to 
bind  down  the  demon  in  the  bottomless  pit.  The  attitude  has 
been  criticised,  and  justly  ;  the  grace  is  somewhat  mannered, 
verging  on  the  theatrical ;  but  Forsyth  is  too  severe  when  he 
talks  of  the  "air  of  a  dancing-master:"  one  thing,  however, 
is  certain,  we  do  not  think  about  attitude  when  we  look*  at 
Raphael's  St.  Michael ;  in  Guide's,  it  is  the  first  thing  that 
strikes  us ;  but  when  we  look  farther,  the  head  redeems  all ; 
it  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  in  the  blending  of  the  masculine 
and  feminine  graces,  in  the  serene  purity  of  the  brow,  and  the 
flow  of  the  golden  hair,  there  is  something  divine  :  a  slight, 
very  slight  expression  of  scorn  is  in  the  air  of  the  head.  The 
fiend  is  the  worst  part  of  the  picture ;  it  is  not  a  fiend,  but  a 
degraded  prosaic  human  ruffian  ;  we  laugh  with  incredulous 
contempt  at  the  idea  of  an  angel  called  down  from  heaven  to 
overcome  such  a  wretch.  In  Raphael  the  fiend  is  human,  but 
the  head  has  the  god-like  ugliness  and  malignity  of  a  satyr  : 
Guido's  fiend  is  only  stupid  and  base.  It  appears  to  me  that 
there  is  just  the  same  difference  —  the  same  kind  of  difference 
—  between  the  angel  of  Raphael  and  the  angel  of  Guido,  as 
between  the  description  in  Tasso  and  the  description  in  Mil- 
ton ;  let  any  one  compare  them.  In  Tasso  we  are  struck  by 
the  picturesque  elegance  of  the  description  as  a  piece  of  art, 
the  melody  of  the  verse,  the  admirable  choice  of  the  expres- 
sions, as  in  Guido  by  the  finished  but  somewhat  artificial  and 
studied  grace.  In  Raphael  and  Milton  we  see  only  the  vision 
of  a  "  shape  divine." 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  figures  of  St.  Michael  I  ever  saw 
occurs  in  a  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  Moretto,  and  is  touched 
by  his  peculiar  sentiment  of  serious  tenderness  (Brescia). 

In  devotional  pictures  such  figures  of  St.  Michael  are  some- 
times grouped  poetically  with  other  personages,  as  in  a  most 
beautiful  picture  by  Innocenzo  da  Imola  (Brera,  Milan),  where 


ST.  MICHAEL  AND  THE  DRAGON  (Gfioo  RENI) 


ST.    MICHAEL  103 

the  archangel  tramples  on  the  demon  ;  St.  Paul  standing  on 
one  side,  and  St.  Benedict  on  the  other,  both  of  whom  had 
striven  with  the  fiend  and  had  overcome  him :  the  Madonna 
and  the  Child  are  seen  in  a  glory  above.1 

And  again  in  a  picture  by  Mabuse,  where  St.  Michael,  as 
patron,  sets  his  foot  on  the  black  grinning  fiend,  and  looks 
down  on  a  kneeling  votary,  while  the  votary,  with  his  head 
turned  away,  appears  to  be  worshipping,  not  the  protecting 
angel,  but  the  Madonna,  to  whom  St.  Michael  presents  him.2 
Such  votive  pictures  are  not  uncommon,  and  have  a  peculiar 
grace  and  significance.  Here  the  archangel  bears  the  victori- 
ous banner  of  the  cross,  —  he  has  conquered.  In  some  in- 
stances he  holds  in  his  hand  the  head  of  the  Dragon,  and  in 
all  instances  it  is,  or  ought  to  be,  the  head  of  the  Dragon 
which  is  transfixed,  —  "  Thou  shalt  bruise  his  head." 

Those  representations  in  which  St.  Michael  is  not  conqueror, 
but  combatant,  in  which  the  moment  is  one  of  transition,  are 
less  frequent ;  it  is  then  an  action,  not  an  emblem,  and  the 
composition  is  historical  rather  than  symbolical.  It  is  the 
strife  with  Lucifer ;  "  when  Michael  and  his  angels  fought 
against  the  dragon,  and  the  dragon,  fought  and  his  angels,  and 
the  great  dragon  was  cast  out."  (Rev.  xii.  7.)  In  churches 
and  chapels  dedicated  to  St.  Michael,  or  to  "  the  Holy  An- 
gels," this  appropriate  subject  often  occurs  ;  as  in  a  famous 
fresco  by  Spinello  d'Arezzo,  at  Arezzo  (A.  D.  1400.  Engraved 
in  Lasinio's  Early  Florentine  Masters).  In  the  middle  of 
the  composition,  Michael,  armed  with  sword  and  shield,  is  seen 
combating  the  dragon  with  seven  heads,  as  described  in  the 
Apocalypse.  Above  and  around  are  many  angels,  also  armed. 
At  the  top  of  the  picture  is  seen  an  empty  throne,  the  throne 
which  Lucifer  had  "  set  in  the  north  ;  "  below  is  seen  Lucifer, 
falling  with  his  angels  over  the  parapet  of  heaven.  (Isaiah 
xiv.  13.)  The  painter  tasked  his  skill  to  render  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  spirits  of  light  into  spirits  of  darkness  as  fear- 
ful and  as  hideous  as  possible ;  and,  being  a  man  of  a  nervous 
temperament,  the  continual  dwelling  on  these  horrors  began  at 
length  to  trouble  his  brain.  He  fancied  that  Lucifer  appeared 

1  [No  painting  by  Innocenzo  da  Imola  is  mentioned  in  the  Brera  catalogue 
of  1892.] 

2  [The  reference  is  probably  to  the  painting  in  the  Munich  Gallery  now 
catalogued  to  Bernaert  van  Orley.] 


104 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


St.  Michael  and  the  Dragon  (Oggione) 

to  him  in  a  dream,  demanding  by  what  authority  he  had  por- 
trayed him  under  an  aspect  so  revolting  ?  —  the  painter  awoke 
in  horror,  was  seized  with  delirious  fever,  and  so  died. 

In  his  combat  with  the  dragon,  Michael  is  sometimes  repre- 
sented alone,  and  sometimes  as  assisted  by  the  two  other  arch- 
angels, Gabriel  and  Raphael  :  as  in  the  fresco  by  Signorelli,  at 
Orvieto,  where  one  of  the  angels,  whom  we  may  suppose  to 


ST.   MICHAEL  105 

be  Kaphael,  looks  down  on  the  falling  demons  with  an  air  of 
melancholy,  almost  of  pity. 

In  a  picture  by  Marco  Oggione,  Michael  has  precipitated  the 
demon  into  the  gulf,  and  hovers  above,  Avhile  Kaphael  and 
Gabriel  stand  below  on  each  side,  looking  on ;  all  are  clothed 
in  voluminous  loose  white  draperies,  more  like  priests  than 
warriors  ;  but  it  is  a  fine  picture  (Brera,  Milan). 

In  the  large  Rubens-room  at  Munich  there  are  two  pictures 
of  Michael  subduing  the  revolted  angels.  The  large  one,  in 
which  Michael  is  the  principal  figure,  is  not  agreeable.  Ru- 
bens could  not  lift  himself  sufficiently  above  the  earth  to 
conceive  and  embody  the  spiritual,  and  heroic,  and  beautiful 
in  one  divine  form ;  his  St.  Michael  is  vulgar.  The  smaller 
composition,  where  the  fallen,  or  rather  falling,  angels  fill  the 
whole  space,  is  a  most  wonderful  effort  of  artistic  invention. 
At  the  summit  of  the  picture  stands  St.  Michael,  the  shield  in 
one  hand,  in  the  other  the  forked  lightnings  of  divine  wrath ; 
and  from  above  the  rebel  host  tumble  headlong  "  in  hideous 
ruin  and  combustion  hurled,"  and  with  such  affright  and 
amazement  in  every  face,  such  a  downward  movement  in  every 
limb,  that  we  recoil  in  dizzy  horror  while  we  look  upon  it.  It 
is  curious  that  Rubens  should  have  introduced  female  repro- 
bate spirits  :  if  he  intended  his  picture  as  an  allegory,  merely 
the  conquest  of  the  spiritual  over  the  sensual,  he  is  excusable ; 
but  if  he  meant  to  figure  the  vision  in  the  Apocalypse,  it  is  a 
deviation  from  the  proper  scriptural  treatment,  which  is  inex- 
cusable. This  picture  remains,  however,  as  a  whole,  a  perfect 
miracle  of  art :  the  fault  is,  that  we  feel  inclined  to  applaud 
as  we  do  at  some  astonishing  tour  de  force  ;  such  at  least  was 
my  own  feeling,  and  this  is  not  the  feeling  appropriate  to  the 
subject.  Though  this  famous  picture  is  entitled  the  Fall  of 
the  Angels,  I  have  some  doubts  as  to  whether  this  was  the 
intention  of  the  painter,  whether  he  did  not  mean  to  express 
the  fall  of  sinners,  flung  by  the  Angel  of  judgment  into  the 
abyss  of  wrath  and  perdition  ? 

In  those  devotional  pictures  which  exhibit  St.  Michael  as 
Lord  of  souls,  he  is  winged  and  unarmed,  and  holds  the  bal- 
ance. In  each  scale  sits  a  little  naked  figure,  representing  a 
human  soul ;  one  of  these  is  usually  represented  with  hands 
joined  as  in  thankfulness  —  he  is  the  beato,  the  elected;  the 
other  is  in  an  attitude  of  horror  —  he  is  the  rejected,  the  repro- 


106  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

bate ;  and  often,  but  not  necessarily,  the  idea  is  completed  by 
the  introduction  of  a  demon,  who  is  grasping  at  the  descend- 
ing scale,  either  with  his  talons,  or  with  the  long  two-pronged 
hook,  such  as  is  given  to  Pluto  in  the  antique  sculpture. 

Sometimes  St.  Michael  is  thus  represented  singly ;  some- 
times very  beautifully  in  Madonna  pictures,  as  in  a  picture  by 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  (A.  D.  1498),  where  St.  Michael,  a  graceful 
angelic  figure,  with  light  flowing  hair,  kneels  before  the  Ma- 
donna, and  presents  the  balance  to  the  Infant,  who  seems  to 
welcome  the  pious  little  soul  who  sits  in  the  uppermost  scale.1 

I  have  seen  this  idea  varied.  St.  Michael  stands  majestic, 
with  the  balance  poised  in  his  hands  :  instead  of  a  human  figure 
in  either  scale,  there  are  weights ;  on  one  side  is  seen  a  com- 
pany of  five  or  six  little  naked  shivering  souls,  as  if  waiting 
for  their  doom ;  on  the  other  several  demons,  one  of  whom 
with  his  hook  is  pulling  down  the  ascending  scale.  (Psalter  of 
St.  Louis.  Bib.  de  1' Arsenal,  Paris.)  With  or  without  the 
balance,  St.  Michael  figures  as  Lord  of  souls  when  introduced 
into  pictures  of  the  Assumption  or  the  Glorification  of  the 
Virgin.  To  understand  the  whole  beauty  and  propriety  of 
such  representations,  we  must  remember  that,  according  to 
one  of  the  legends  of  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  her  spirit  was 
consigned  to  the  care  of  St.  .Michael  until  it  was  permitted 
to  reanimate  the  spotless  form,  and  with  it  ascend  to  heaven. 

In  one  or  two  instances  only,  I  have  seen  St.  Michael  with- 
out wings.  In  general,  an  armed  figure,  unwinged  and  stand- 
ing on  a  dragon,  we  may  presume  to  be  a  St.  George ;  but 
where  the  balance  is  introduced,  it  leaves  no  doubt  of  the 
personality  —  it  is  a  St.  Michael.  Occasionally  the  two  char- 
acters—  the  protecting  Angel  of  light  and  the  Angel  of  judg- 
ment —  are  united,  and  we  see  St.  Michael  with  the  dragon 
under  his  feet  and  the  balance  in  his  hand.  This  was  a  favor- 
ite and  appropriate  subject  on  tombs  and  chapels  dedicated  to 
the  dead  ;  such  is  the  beautiful  bas-relief  on  the  tomb  of 
Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

In  some  representations  of  the  Last  Judgment,  St.  Michael, 
instead  of  the  banner  and  cross,  bears  the  scales  ;  as  in  the 
very  curious  bas-relief  on  the  fagade  of  the  church  of  St. 
Trophime  at  Aries.  St.  Michael  here  has  a  balance  so  large 

[!  The  picture  described  is  the  Vierge  aux  Balances  of  the  Louvre,  attri- 
buted by  Otto  Miindler  to  Cesare  da  Sesto.] 


ST.   MICHAEL 


107 


that  it  is  almost  as  high  as  himself ;  it  is  not  a  mere  emblem, 
but  a  fact ;  a  soul  sits  in  each  scale,  and  a  third  is  rising  up  ; 
the  angel  holds  out  one  hand  to  assist  him.  In  another  part 
of  the  same  bas-relief  St.  Michael  is  seen  carrying  a  human 
soul  (represented  as  a  little  naked  figure)  and  bringing  it  to 


St.  Michael  as  Angel  of  Judgment  (attributed  to  Memling) 

St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  In  a  celebrated  Last  Judgment,  at- 
tributed by  some  authors  to  John  Van  Eyck,  by  others  to 
Justus  of  Ghent  [or  to  Memling],  St.  Michael  is  grandly 
introduced.  High  up,  in  the  centre,  sits  the  Saviour,  with  the 
severe  expression  of  the  judge.  Above  Him  hover  four  angels 
with  the  instruments  of  the  Passion,  and  below  Him  three 


108  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

others  sounding  trumpets  —  I  suppose  the  seven  preemi- 
nent angels  :  the  Virgin  and  St.  John  the  Baptist  on  each 
side,  and  then  the  Apostles  ranged  in  the  usual  manner.  "  In 
the  lower  half  of  the  picture  stands  St.  Michael,  clad  in 
golden  armor,  so  bright  as  to  reflect  in  the  most  complete 
manner  all  the  surrounding  objects.  His  figure  is  slender  and 
elegant,  but  colossal  as  compared  to  the  rest.  He  seems  to 
be  bending  earnestly  forward,  a  splendid  purple  mantle  falls 
from  his  shoulders  to  the  ground,  and  his  large  wings  are  com- 
posed of  glittering  peacock's  feathers.  He  holds  the  balance  ; 
the  scale  with  the  good  rests  on  earth,  but  that  with  the  souls 
which  are  found  wanting  mounts  into  the  air.  A  demon 
stands  ready  to  receive  them,  and  towards  this  scale  St.  Michael 
points  with  the  end  of  a  black  staff  which  he  holds  in  his 
right  hand."  This  picture,  which  is  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  the 
early  German  school,  is  now  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary  at 
Dantzig. 

The  historical  subjects  in  which  St.  Michael  is  introduced 
exhibit  him  as  prince  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and  belong  prop- 
erly to  the  Old  Testament.  (St.  Ephrem,  Bib.  Orient,  torn.  i. 
p.  78;  De  Beausobre,  vol.  ii.  p.  17.)  "After  the  confusion 
of  tongues,  and  the  scattering  of  the  people,  which  occurred 
on  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  every  separate  nation 
had  an  angel  to  direct  it.  To  Michael  was  given  in  charge 
the  people  of  the  Lord.  The  Hebrews  being  carried  away 
captive  into  the  land  of  Assyria,  Daniel  prayed  that  they 
might  be  permitted  to  return  when  the  seventy  years  of  cap- 
tivity were  over ;  but  the  Angel  of  Persia  opposed  himself  on 
this  occasion  to  the  angels  Michael  and  Gabriel.  He  wished 
to  retain  the  Jews  in  captivity,  because  he  was  glad  to  have, 
within  the  bounds  of  his  jurisdiction,  a  people  who  served 
the  true  God,  and  because  he  hoped  that  in  time  the  captive 
Jews  would  convert  to  the  truth  the  Assyrians  and  Persians 
committed  to  his  care."  This  curious  passage  from  one  of  the 
early  Christian  fathers,  representing  the  good  angels  as  opposed 
to  each  other,  and  one  of  them  as  disputing  the  commands 
of  God,  is  an  instance  of  the  confused  ideas  on  the  subject  of 
angels  which  prevailed  in  the  ancient  Church,  and  which  pre- 
vail, I  imagine,  in  the  minds  of  many  even  at  this  day. 

In  the  story  of  Hagar  in  the  wilderness,  it  is  Michael  who 


ST.   MICHAEL  109 

descends  to  her  aid.  In  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  it  is  Michael 
who  stays  the  arm  of  Abraham.  It  is  Michael  who  brings 
the  plagues  on  Egypt,  and  he  it  is  who  leads  the  Israel- 
ites through  the  wilderness.  It  was  the  belief  of  the  Jews, 
and  of  some  of  the  early  Christian  fathers,  that  through  his 
angel  (not  in  person)  God  spoke  to  Moses  from  the  burning 
bush,  and  delivered  to  him  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai ;  and  that 
the  angel  so  delegated  was  Michael. 

It  is  Michael  who  combats  with  Lucifer  for  the  body  of 
Moses.  (Jude,  ver.  9.)  According  to  one  interpretation  of  this 
curious  passage  of  Scripture,  the  demon  wished  to  enter  and 
to  possess  the  form  of  Moses,  in  order  to  deceive  the  Jews  by 
personating  their  leader ;  but  others  say  that  Michael  con- 
tended for  the  body,  that  he  might  bury  it  in  an  unknown 
place,  lest  the  Jews  should  fall  into  the  sin  of  paying  divine 
honors  to  their  legislator.  This  is  a  fine  picturesque  subject ; 
the  rocky  desert,  the  body  of  Moses  dead  on  the  earth,  the 
contest  of  the  good  and  evil  angel  confronting  each  other,  — 
these  are  grand  materials  !  It  must  have  been  rarely  treated, 
for  I  remember  but  one  instance  —  the  fresco  by  L.  Signorelli, 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Yatican.1 

It  is  Michael  who  intercepts  Balaam  when  on  his  way  to 
curse  the  people  of  Israel,  and  puts  blessings  into  his  mouth 
instead  of  curses :  a  subject  often  treated,  but  as  a  fact  rather 
than  a  vision.  (Didron.) 

It  is  Michael  who  stands  before  Joshua  in  the  plain  by 
Jericho :  "  And  Joshua  said  unto  him,  Art  thou  for  us,  or 
for  our  adversaries  ?  And  he  said,  Nay  ;  but  as  captain  of 
the  host  of  the  Lord  am  I  now  come.  And  Joshua  fell  on 
his  face  to  the  earth,  and  did  worship,  and  said  unto  him, 
What  saith  my  lord  unto  his  servant  ?  And  the  captain  of 
the  Lord's  host  said  unto  Joshua,  Loose  thy  shoe  from  off  thy 
foot ;  for  the  place  whereon  thou  standest  is  holy."  (Joshua 
v.  13—15.)  This  subject  is  very  uncommon.  In  the  Greek 
MS.  already  alluded  to,  I  met  with  a  magnificent  example  — 
magnificent  in  point  of  sentiment,  though  half  ruined  and 
effaced ;  the  god-like  bearing  of  the  armed  angel,  looking 
down  on  the  prostrate  Joshua,  is  here  as  fine  as  possible. 

It  is  Michael  who  appears  to  Gideon.     (Judges  vi.  11.)     It 

1  [For  other  opinions  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  this  fresco,  see  Lay- 
urd's  Revision  of  Kugler's  Handbook,  p.  185.] 


110  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

is  Michael  who  chastises  David.  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  16.)  It  is 
Michael  who  exterminates  the  army  of  Sennacherib  ;  a  sub- 
ject magnificently  painted  by  Rubens  [Munich].  Some  sup- 
pose that  on  this  occasion  God  made  use  of  the  ministry  of  an 
evil  angel.  (Calmet.) 

It  is  Michael  who  descends  to  deliver  the  Three  Children 
from  the  burning  fiery  furnace.  The  Three  Children  in  the 
furnace  is  a  subject  which  appears  very  early  in  the  catacombs 
and  on  the  sarcophagi  as  a  symbol  of  the  Redemption.  —  so 
early,  that  it  is  described  by  Tertullian  (De  Oratione,  cap. 
xii.)  ;  but  in  almost  all  the  examples  given  there  are  three 
figures  only  ;  where  there  is  a  fourth,  it  is,  of  course,  the  pro- 
tecting angel,  but  he  is  without  wings.  (Bottari,  Tab.  xxii.) 
On  the  early  Christian  sarcophagi,  as  I  have  already  observed, 
there  are  no  winged  angels.  In  the  oft-repeated  subject  of 
the  "  Three  Children  in  the  burning  fiery  furnace,"  the  fourth 
figure,  when  introduced,  may  represent  a  son  of  God,  —  i.  e. 
an  angel ;  or  the  Son  of  God,  i.  e.  Christ,  as  it  has  been  inter- 
preted in  both  senses. 

Michael  seizes  the  prophet  Habakkuk  by  the  hair  of  the 
head,  and  carries  him  to  Babylon,  to  the  den  of  lions,  that  he 
may  feed  Daniel.  (Bel  and  the  Dragon,  26.)  This  apocryphal 
subject  occurs  on  several  sarcophagi.  (Bottari,  15,  49,  84.)  I 
have  seen  it  also  in  illuminated  MSS.,  but  cannot  at  this  mo- 
ment refer  to  it.  It  occurs  in  a  series  of  late  Flemish  prints 
after  Heemskerk,  of  which  there  are  good  impressions  in  the 
British  Museum. 

The  Archangel  Michael  is  not  named  in  the  Gospels ;  but 
in  the  legends  of  the  Madonna,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  he 
plays  a  very  important  part,  being  deputed  by  Christ  to 
announce  to  His  mother  her  approaching  end,  and  to  receive 
her  soul.  For  the  present  I  will  only  remark,  that  when,  in 
accordance  with  this  very  ancient  legend,  an  angel  is  repre- 
sented kneeling  before  the  Madonna,  and  holding  in  his  hand 
a  palm  surmounted  by  stars,  or  a  lighted  taper,  this  angel  is 
not  Gabriel,  announcing  the  conception  of  Christ,  as  is  usually 
supposed,  but  Michael,  as  the  angel  of  death.  (See  Legends  of 
the  Madonna.) 

The  legend  of  Monte  Galgano  I  saw  in  a  large  fresco,  in  the 
[Cappella  Velluti]  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  by  a  painter  of 


ST.   GABRIEL  111 

the  Giotto  school ;  but  in  so  bad  a  state,  that  I  could  only 
make  out  a  bull  on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  and  a  man  shooting 
with  a  bow  and  arrow.  On  the  opposite  wall  is  the  combat  of 
Michael  with  the  dragon — very  spirited,  and  in  much  better 
preservation.  To  distinguish  the  apparition  of  St.  Michael  on 
Monte  Galgano  from  the  apparition  on  Mont  St.  Michel,  in 
both  of  which  a  bull  and  a  bishop  are  principal  figures,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe,  that,  in  the  last-named  subject,  the  sea 
is  always  introduced  at  the  base  of  the  picture,  and  that  the 
former  is  most  common  in  Italian,  and  the  latter  in  French, 
works  of  art.  In  the  French  stained  glass  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  St.  Michael  is  a  very  popular  subject, 
either  with  the  dragon,  or  the  scales,  or  both. 

Lately,  in  removing  the  whitewash  from  the  east  wall  of 
the  nave  of  Preston  Church,  near  Brighton,  was  discovered 
the  outline  of  a  group  of  figures  representing  St.  Michael, 
fully  draped,  and  with  large  wings,  bearing  the  balance  ;  in 
each  scale  a  human  soul.  The  scale  containing  the  beato  is 
assisted  by  a  figure  fully  draped,  but  so  ruined  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  whether  it  represents  the  Virgin,  or  the  guar- 
dian saint  of  the  person  who  caused  the  fresco  to  be  painted. 
I  am  told  that  in  the  old  churches  of  Cornwall,  and  of  the 
towns  on  the  south  coast,  which  had  frequent  intercourse  with 
France,  effigies  of  St.  Michael  occur  frequently,  both  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture.  On  the  old  English  coin,  thence  called  an 
angel,  we  have  the  figure  of  St.  Michael,  who  was  one  of  the 
patron  saints  of  our  Norman  kings. 

I  must  now  trust  to  the  reader  to  contemplate  the  figures 
of  St.  Michael,  so  frequent  and  so  varied  in  Art,  with  refer- 
ence to  these  suggestions ;  and  leaving  for  the  present  this 
radiant  Spirit,  this  bright  similitude  of  a  primal  and  universal 
faith,  we  turn  to  his  angelic  companions. 


ST.   GABRIEL 

Lot.  Sanctus  Gabriel.     Ital.  San  Gabriello,  San  Gabriele,  L'Angelo 
Annunziatore.     Fr.  St.  Gabriel. 

"  I  am  Gabriel,  that  stand  in  the  presence  of  God."  —  Luke  i.  19. 

Iii  those  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  Angel  Gabriel  is 
mentioned  by  name,  he  is  brought  before  us  in  the  character 


112  OF   ANGELS   AND   AKCHANGELS 

of  a  Messenger  only,  and  always  on  important  occasions.  In 
the  Old  Testament  he  is  sent  to  Daniel  to  announce  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity  and  to  explain  the  vision 
which  prefigures  the  destinies  of  mighty  empires.  His  con- 
test with  the  Angel  of  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  when  St. 
Michael  comes  to  his  assistance,  would  be  a  splendid  subject 
in  fit  hands ;  I  do  not  know  that  it  has  ever  been  painted. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  mission  of  Gabriel  is  yet  more 
sublime  :  he  first  appears  to  the  high  priest  Zacharias,  and 
foretells  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  —  a  subject  which 
belongs  especially  to  the  life  of  that  saint.  Six  months  later, 
Gabriel  is  sent  to  announce  the  appearance  of  the  Redeemer 
of  mankind.  "  The  stone  on  which  stood  the  angel  Gabriel 
when  he  announced  to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin  the  great 
mystery  of  the  Incarnation  "  is  among  the  relics  enumerated 
as  existing  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Rome. 

In  the  Jewish  tradition,  Gabriel  is  the  guardian  of  the 
celestial  treasury.  Hence,  I  presume,  Milton  has  made  him 
chief  guardian  of  Paradise  :  — 

,  Betwixt  these  rocky  pillars  Gabriel  sat, 

Chief  of  the  angelic  guards,  awaiting  night. 

[Par.  Lost,  book  iv.  550.] 

As  the  Angel  who  announced  the  birth  of  Christ,  he  has 
been  venerated  as  the  Angel  who  presides  over  childbirth. 
He  foretells  the  birth  of  Samson,  and,  in  the  apocryphal 
legends,  he  foretells  to  Joachim  the  birth  of  the  Virgin.  In 
the  East,  he  is  of  great  importance.  Mahomet  selected  him 
as  his  immediate  teacher  and  inspirer,  and  he  became  the 
great  protecting  angel  of  Islamism  :  hence  between  Michael, 
the  protector  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  Gabriel,  the 
protector  of  the  Moslem,  there  is  supposed  to  exist  no  friendly 
feeling  —  rather  the  reverse. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Gabriel  is  a  much  more  important 
personage  than  Michael ;  yet  I  have  never  met  with  any  pic- 
ture in  which  he  figures  singly  as  an  object  of  worship.  In 
devotional  pictures  he  figures  as  the  second  of  the  three  Arch- 
angels —  "  Secondo  f ra  i  primi,"  as  Tasso  styles  him  ;  or  in 
his  peculiar  character  as  the  divine  messenger  of  grace,  "  V An- 
yelo  anniinziatore."  He  then  usually  bears  in  one  hand  a 


ST.    GABRIEL  113 

lily  or  a  sceptre  ;  in  the  other  a  scroll  on  which  is  inscribed, 
"  AVE  MARIA,  GRATIA  PLENA  !  "  1 

The  subject  called  the  ANNUNCIATION  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  and  most  important,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most,  beauti- 
ful, in  the  whole  range  of  Christian  Art.  It  belongs,  how- 
ever, to  the  history  of  the  Virgin,  where  I  shall  have  occasion 
to  treat  it  at  length  ;  yet  as  the  Angel  Gabriel  here  assumes, 
by  direct  scriptural  testimony,  a  distinct  name  and  personality, 
and  as  the  dignity  and  significance  proper  to  a  subject  so  often 
unworthily  and  perversely  treated  depend  very  much  on  the 
character  and  deportment  given  to  the  celestial  messenger,  I 
shall  make  a  few  observations  in  this  place  with  respect  to  the 
treatment  of  the  angel,  only  reserving  the  theme  in  its  general 
bearing  for  future  consideration. 

In  the  early  representations  of  the  Annunciation  it  is  treated 
as  a  religious  mystery,  and  with  a  solemn  simplicity  and  purity 
of  feeling  which  is  very  striking  and  graceful  in  itself,  as 
well  as  in  harmony  with  the  peculiar  manner  of  the  divine  reve- 
lation. The  scene  is  generally  a  porch  or  portico  of  a  temple- 
like  building ;  the  Virgin  stands  (she  is  very  seldom  seated, 
and  then  on  a  kind  of  raised  throne)  ;  the  angel  stands  before 
her,  at  some  distance ;  very  often,  she  is  within  the  portico ; 
he  is  without.  Gabriel  is  a  majestic  being,  generally  robed  in 
white,  wearing  the  tunic  and  pallium  a  I'antique,  his  flowing 
hair  bound  by  a  jewelled  tiara,  with  large  many-colored  wings, 
and  bearing  the  sceptre  of  sovereignty  in  the  left  hand,  while 
the  right  is  extended  in  the  act  of  benediction  as  well  as  salu- 
tation :  "  Hail !  thou  that  art  highly  favored  !  Blessed  art 
thou  among  women  !  "  He  is  the  principal  figure  :  the  atti- 
tude of  the  Virgin,  with  her  drapery  drawn  over  her  head, 
her  eyes  drooping,  and  her  hands  folded  on  her  bosom,  is 
always  expressive  of  the  utmost  submission  and  humility.  So 
Dante  introduces  the  image  of  the  lowly  Virgin  receiving  the 
angel  as  an  illustration  of  the  virtue  of  Humility  :  — 

1  In  Paradise  he  sings  forever  the  famous  salutation:  — 
Cantando  Ave  Maria  gratia  plena 
Dinanzi  a  lei  le  sue  ali  distese. 

Dante,  Par.  32. 

[And  he  who  had  to  her  descended  once 
On  earth,  now  hail'd  in  heav'n,  and  on  pois'd  wing 
Ave  Maria  gratia  plena  sang. 

Cary's  Translation.] 


114 


OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 


Ed  avea  in  atto  impressa  esta  fa- 

vella 
"  Ecce  ancilla  Dei!  " 

and  Flaxman  has  admirably 
embodied  this  idea,  both  in 
the  lofty  angel  with  out- 
spread arms,  and  the  kneel- 
ing Virgin.  Sometimes  the 
angel  floats  in,  with  his  arms 
crossed  over  his  bosom,  but 
still  with  the  air  of  a  supe- 
rior being,  as  in  this  beau- 
tiful figure  after  Lorenzo 
Monaco,  from  a  picture  in 
the  [Academy],  Florence. 

The  two  figures  are  not 
always  in  the  same  picture  ; 
it  was  a  very  general  custom 
to  place  the  Virgin  and  the 
Angel,  the  "  Annunziata  " 
and  the  "Angelo  annunzia- 
tore,"  one  on  each  side  of 
the  altar,  the  place  of  the 
Virgin  being  usually  to  the 
right  of  the  spectator;  some- 
times the  figures  are  half- 
length  :  sometimes,  when  placed  in  the  same  picture,  they  are 
in  two  separate  compartments,  a  pillar,  or  some  other  ornament, 
running  up  the  picture  between  them  ;  as  in  many  old  altar- 
pieces,  where  the  two  figures  are  placed  above  or  on  each  side 
of  the  Nativity,  or  the  Baptism,  or  the  Marriage  at  Cana,  or 
some  other  scene  from  the  life  and  miracles  of  our  Saviour. 
This  subject  does  not  appear  on  the  sarcophagi ;  the  earliest 
instance  I  have  met  with  is  in  the  mosaic  series  over  the  arch 
in  front  of  the  choir  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  at 
Rome,  executed  in  the  fifth  century.  Here  we  have  two  suc- 
cessive moments  represented  together.  In  the  first  the  angel  is 
sent  on  his  mission,  and  appears  flying  down  from  heaven  ;  the 
earliest  instance  I  have  seen  of  an  angel  in  the  act  of  flight. 
In  the  second  group  the  Virgin  appears  seated  on  a  throne  ;  two 
angels  stand  behind  her,  supposed  to  represent  her  guardian 


Angel  Gabriel  (Lorenzo  Monaco) 


ST.    GABRIEL 


110 


angels,  and  the  angel 
Gabriel  stands  in  front 
with  one  hand  extended. 
The  dresses  are  classical, 
and  there  is  not  a  trace 
of  the  mediaeval  feeling, 
or  style,  in  the  whole 
composition. 

In  the  Greek  pictures, 
the  Angel  and  the  Vir- 
gin hoth  stand ;  and  in 
the  Annunciation  of  Cim- 
abue  the  Greek  formula 
is  strictly  adhered  to.  I 
have  seen  pictures,  of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  in  which  Ga- 
briel enters  as  a  princely 
ambassador,  with  three 
little  angels  bearing  up 
his  mantle  behind  :  in  a 
picture  in  the  collection 
of  Prince  Wallerstein, 
one  meek  and  beautiful 
angel  bears  up  the  rich 
robes  of  the  majestic  arch- 
angel, like  a  page  in  the  train  of  a  sovereign  prince.  But  from 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  we  perceive  a  change 
of  feeling,  as  well  as  a  change  of  style ;  the  veneration  paid  to 
the  Virgin  demanded  another  treatment.  She  becomes  not 
merely  the  principal  person,  but  the  superior  being;  she  is 
the  "  Regina  angelorum,"  and  the  angel  bows  to  her,  or  kneels 
before  her  as  to  a  queen.1  Thus  in  the  famous  altar-piece  at 
Cologne,  the  angel  kneels  ;  he  bears  a  sceptre,  and  also  a  sealed 

1  See  the  Ursuline  Manual.  ''When  an  angel  anciently  appeared  to  the 
patriarchs  or  prophets,  he  was  received  with  due  honor  as  being  exalted  above 
them,  both  by  nature  and  grace;  but  when  an  archangel  visited  Mary,  he 
was  struck  with  her  superior  dignity  and  preeminence,  and,  approaching, 
saluted  her  with  admiration  and  respect.  Though  accustomed  to  the  lustre 
of  the  highest  heavenly  spirits,  yet  he  was  dazzled  and  amazed  at  the  dignity 
and  spiritual  glory  of  her  whom  he  came  to  salute  Mother  of  God,  while  the 
attention  of  the  whole  heavenly  court  was  with  rapture  fixed  upon  her." 


Angel  Gabriel  (Stephen  Lothener) 


116  OF  ANGELS   AND  ARCHANGELS 

roll,  as  if  he  were  a  celestial  ambassador  delivering  his  cre- 
dentials ;  about  the  same  period  we  sometimes  see  the  angel 
merely  with  his  hands  folded  over  his  breast,  and  his  head 
inclined,  delivering  his  message  as  if  to  a  superior  being. 

I  cannot  decide  at  what  period  the  lily  first  replaced  the 
sceptre  in  the  hand  of  the  angel,  not  merely  as  the  emblem 
of  purity,  but  as  the  symbol  of  the  Virgin  from  the  verse  in 
the  Canticles  usually  applied  to  her :  "I  am  the  rose  of 
Sharon,  and  the  lily  of  the  valley."  A  lily  is  often  placed  in 
a  vase  near  the  Virgin,  or  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture : 
of  all  the  attributes  placed  in  the  hand  of  the  angel,  the  lily 
is  the  most  usual  and  the  most  expressive. 

The  painters  of  Siena,  who  often  displayed  a  new  and  origi- 
nal sentiment  in  the  treatment  of  a  subject,  have  represented 
the  Angel  Gabriel  as  the  announcer  of  "  peace  on  earth ;  "  he 
kneels  before  the  Virgin,  croAvned  with  olive,  and  bearing  a 
branch  of  olive  in  his  hand,  as  in  a  picture  by  Taddeo  Bartoli. 
There  is  also  a  beautiful  St.  Gabriel  by  Martin  Schoen,  stand- 
ing, and  crowned  with  olive.  So  Dante  — 

L'  angel  che  venue  in  terra  col  decreto 
Delia  molt'  anni  lagrimata  pace. 

Another  passage  in  Dante  which  the  painters  seem  to  have 
had  before  them  shows  us  the  Madonna  as  queen,  and  the 
angel  as  adoring :  — 

"Qual  e  quel  angel  che  con  tanto  giuoco 
Guarda  negli  occhi  la  nostra  regina 
Innamorato  si  che  par  di  fuoco  ?" 
Ed  egli  a  me, —  "  Baldezza  e  leggiadria 
Quanta  esser  puote  in  angelo  ed  in  alma 
Tutta  e  in  lui,  e  si  volem  che  sia  !  " 

[Paradiso,  canto  xxxii.  90.1] 

It  is  in  seeking  this  baldezza  e  leggiadria  in  a  mistaken 

1  [Gary's  translation  of  these  lines  scarcely  conveys  the  meaning  of  bal- 
dezza and  leggiardria :  — 

"  Say  who  that  angel  is,  that  with  such  glee 
Beholds  our  queen,  and  so  enamor'd  glows 
Of  her  high  beauty,  that  all  fire  lie  seems," 

"  In  him  are  summ'd 
Whate'er  of  buxomness  and  free  delight 
May  be  in  spirit,  or  in  angel,  met."] 


ST.    GABKIEL 


117 


sense  that  the  later  painters  have  forgotten  all  the  spiritual 
dignity  of  the  Angel  Messenger. 

Where  the  angel  bears  a  lighted  taper,  which  the  Virgin 
extends  her  hand  to  take  from  him ;  or,  kneeling,  bears  in  his 
hand  a  palm-branch,  surmounted  by  seven  or  twelve  stars,  the 
subject  represented  is  not  the  announcement  of  the  birth  of 
the  Saviour,  but  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  a.  part  of  her  legendary 
history  which  is  rarely  treated  and  easily  mistaken  ;  then  the 
announcing  angel  is  not  Gabriel,  but  Michael.1 

In  old  German  Art,  the  angel  in  the  Annunciation  is  habited 
in  priestly  garments  richly  embroidered.  The  scene  is  often 
the  bedroom  of  the  Virgin  ; 
and  while  the  announcing 
angel  enters  and  kneels  at 
the  threshold  of  the  door, 
the  Holy  Ghost  enters  at 
the  window.  I  have  seen 
examples  in  which  Gabriel, 
entering  at  a  door  behind 
the  Virgin,  unfolds  his  offi- 
cial "  Ave  Maria."  He  has 
no  lily,  or  sceptre,  and  she  is 
apparently  conscious  of  his 
presence  without  seeing  him 
(as  in  a  very  curious  print  by 
"  Le  Graveur  de  1466 ;  "  and 
there  are  other  instances). 

But  in  the  representa- 
tions of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury we  find  neither  the 
solemnity  of  the  early  Ital- 
ian nor  the  naivete'  of  the 
early  German  school ;  and 
this  divine  subject  becomes 
more  and  more  materialized 

and  familiarized,  until,  losing  its  spiritual  character,  it  strikes 
us  as  shockingly  prosaic.  One  cannot  say  that  the  angel  is 
invariably  deficient  in  dignity,  or  the  Virgin  in  grace.  In  the 

1  The  Annunciation  and  the  Death  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  office  and  charac- 
ter of  the  announcing  angel  in  both  subjects,  are  fully  treated  and  illustrated 
in  the  Legends  oj' the  Madonna. 


t-  s 


Angel  Gabriel  (Martin  Schoen) 


118  OF   ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

Venetian  school  and  the  Bologna  school  we  find  occasionally 
very  beautiful  Annunciations ;  but  in  general  the  half-draped 
fluttering  angels  and  the  girlish-looking  Virgins  are  nothing  less 
than  offensive  ;  and  in  the  attempt  to  vary  the  sentiment  the 
naturalisti  have  here  run  the  risk  of  being  much  too  natural. 

In  the  cathedral  at  Orvieto,  the  Annunciation  is  represented 
in  front  of  the  choir  by  two  colossal  statues  by  Francesco 
Mochi :  to  the  right  is  the  Angel  Gabriel,  poised  on  a  marble 
cloud,  in  an  attitude  so  fantastic  that  he  looks  as  if  he  were 
going  to  dance ;  on  the  other  side  stands  the  Virgin,  con- 
ceived in  a  spirit  how  different !  —  yet  not  less  mistaken  ;  she 
has  started  from  her  throne ;  with  one  hand  she  grasps  it,  with 
the  other  she  seems  to  guard  her  person  against  the  intruder  ; 
majesty  at  once,  and  fear,  a  look  of  insulted  dignity,  are  in  the 
air  and  attitude,  —  "par  che  minacci  e  terna  nel  tempo 
istesso,"  •  —  but  I  thought  of  Mrs.  Siddons  while  I  looked,  not 
of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

This  fault  of  sentiment  I  saw  reversed,  but  equally  in  the 
extreme,  in  another  example  —  a  beautiful  miniature.  (Chants 
Royaux.  Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.)  The  Virgin,  seated  on  the  side  of 
her  bed,  sinks  back  alarmed,  almost  fainting ;  the  angel  in  a 
robe  of  crimson,  with  a  white  tunic,  stands  before  her,  half 
turning  away  and  grasping  his  sceptre  in  his  hand,  with  a  proud 
commanding  air,  like  a  magnificent  surly  god  —  a  Jupiter  who 
had  received  a  repulse. 

I  pass  over  other  instances  conceived  in  a  taste  even  more 
blamable  —  Gabriels  like  smirking,  winged  lord  chamberlains  ; 
and  Virgins,  half  prim,  half  voluptuous  —  the  sanctity  and 
high  solemnity  of  the  event  utterly  lost.  Let  this  suffice  for 
the  present : ,  I  may  now  leave  the  reader  to  his  own  feeling 
and  discrimination. 

ST.  RAPHAEL 

Lot.  Sanctus  Raphael.     Ital.  San  Raffaello.     Fr.  Saint  Raphael. 
Ger.  Der  Heilige  Rafael. 

"lam  Raphael,  one  of  the  Seven  Holy  Angels  which  present  the  prayers  of 
the  Saints,  and  which  go  in  and  out  before  the  glory  of  the  Holy  One." — 
Tobit  xii.  15. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  established  belief,  that  every 
individual  man,  nay,  every  created  being,  hath  a  guardian 


ST.    RAPHAEL  119 

angel  deputed  to  watch  over  him.  Woe  unto  us,  if,  by  our 
negligence  or  our  self-will,  we  offend  him  on  whose  vigilance 
we  depend  for  help  and  salvation  !  But  the  prince  of  guardian 
spirits,  the  guardian  angel  of  all  humanity,  is  Raphael ;  and  in 
this  character,  according  to  the  early  Christians,  he  appeared 
to  the  shepherds  by  night  "  with  good  tidings  of  great  joy, 
which  shall  be  for  all  people."  It  is,  however,  from  the  beau- 
tiful Hebrew  romance  of  Tobit  that  his  attributes  are  gathered  : 
he  is  the  protector  of  the  young  and  innocent,  and  he  watches 
over  the  pilgrim  and  the  wayfarer.  The  character  imputed  to 
him  in  the  Jewish  traditions  has  been  retained  and  amplified 
by  Milton ;  Raphael  is  the  angel  sent  by  God  to  warn  Adam  : 

The  affable  archangel 
Raphael  ;  the  sociable  spirit  that  deigned 
To  travel  with  Tobias,  and  secured 
His  marriage  with  the  seven  times  wedded  maid. 

[Par.  Lost,  book  v.  220.] 

And  the  character  of  the  angel  is  preserved  throughout ; 
his  sympathy  with  the  human  race,  his  benignity,  his  elo- 
quence, his  mild  and  social  converse.  So  when  Adam  blesses 
him :  — 

Since  to  part, 

Go,  heavenly  guest,  ethereal  messenger, 
Sent  from  whose  sovereign  goodness  I  adore! 
Gentle  to  me  and  affable  hath  been 
Thy  condescension,  and  shall  be  honored  ever 
With  grateful  memory.     Thou  to  mankind 
Be  good  and  friendly  still,  and  oft  return  ! 

[Par.  Lost,  book  viii.  645.] 

This  character  of  benignity  is  stamped  on  all  the  best 
representations  of  Raphael,  which,  however,  are  not  common  : 
they  occur  principally  in  the  chapels  dedicated  to  the  holy 
guardian  angels ;  but  there  are  also  churches  and  chapels  dedi- 
cated to  him  singly. 

The  devotional  figures  of  Raphael  exhibit  him  in  the  dress 
of  a  pilgrim  or  traveller,  "  his  habit  fit  for  speed  succinct," 
sandals  on  his  feet,  his  hair  bound  with  a  fillet  or  diadem,  the 
staff  in  his  hand,  and  sometimes  a  bottle  of  water  or  a  wal- 
let {panetiere)  slung  to  his  belt.  In  a  figure  by  Murillo, 
from  one  of  the  most  beautiful  pictures  in  the  Leuchtenberg 
Gallery  [Munich]],  Raphael  is  the  guardian  and  guide  of  the 
votary  who  appears  below — a  bishop  who  probably  bore  the 


120  OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS 

same  name.  Mr.  Stirling  entitles  this  picture,  "An  Angel 
appearing  to  a  Bishop  at  his  prayers." 

Sometimes,  as  guardian  spirit,  he  has  a  sword :  the  most 
beautiful  example  I  could  cite  of  this  treatment  is  the  figure 
in  the  Breviary  of  Anne  of  Bretagne  (A.  D.  1500)  ;  he  wears 
a  pale-green  tunic  bordered  with  gold,  and  wings  of  a  deep 
rose-color ;  he  has  a  casket  or  wallet  slung  over  his  shoulder 
by  a  golden  belt ;  in  one  hand  he  holds  a  sword,  and  the 
other  is  raised  with  a  warning  gesture ;  his  countenance,  beau- 
tiful and  benign  as  possible,  yet  says,  "  Take  heed."  More 
commonly,  however,  he  carries  a  small  casket,  box,  or  vase, 
supposed  to  contain  the  "  fishy  charm  "  against  the  evil  spirits. 
(Tobit  vi.  6,  7.) 

Raphael,  in  his  character  of  guardian  angel,  is  generally 
represented  as  leading  the  youthful  Tobias.  When,  in  order 
to  mark  the  difference  between  the  celestial  and  the  mortal 
being,  Tobit  is  figured  so  small  as  to  look  like  a  child,  and 
when  the  angel  wears  his  spirit-wings,  and  is  not  disguised, 
the  whole  subject  becomes  idealized :  it  is  no  longer  an  histor- 
ical action,  but  a  devotional  allegory ;  and  Tobias  with  his 
fish  represents  the  Christian,  the  believer,  guarded  and  guided 
through  his  life-pilgrimage  by  the  angelic  monitor  and  min- 
ister of  divine  mercy. 

There  is  a  small  side  chapel  in  the  church  of  Saint 
Euphemia,  at  Verona,  dedicated  to  St.  Raphael.  The  walls 
are  painted  with  frescoes  from  the  story  of  Tobit ;  and  over 
the  altar  is  that  masterpiece  of  Carotto,  representing  the  three 
archangels  as  three  graceful  spirit-like  figures  without  wings. 
The  altar  being  dedicated  to  Raphael,  he  is  here  the  principal 
figure ;  he  alone  has  the  glory  encircling  his  head,  and  takes 
precedence  of  the  others ;  he  stands  in  the  centre  leading 
Tobias,  and  looking  down  on  him  with  an  air  of  such  saintly 
and  benign  protection  that  one  feels  inclined  to  say  or  sing, 
in  the  words  of  the  litany,  "  Sancte  Raphael,  adolescentium 
pudicitae  defensor,  ora  pro  nobis  !  "  Even  more  divine  is  the 
St.  Michael  who  stands  on  the  right,  with  one  hand  gathering 
up  the  folds  of  his  crimson  robe,  the  other  leaning  on  his 
great  two-handed  sword ;  but  such  a  head,  such  a  countenance 
looking  out  upon  us  —  so  earnest,  powerful,  and  serious  !  —  we 
recognize  the  Lord  of  Souls,  the  Angel  of  Judgment.  To  the 
left  of  Raphael  stands  Gabriel,  the  Angel  of  Redemption ;  he 


ST.   RAPHAEL  121 

holds  the  lily,  and  looks  up  to  heaven  adoring !  this  is  the 
least  expressive  of  the  three  heads,  but  still  beautiful ;  and,  on 
the  whole,  the  picture  left  a  stronger  impression  on  my  mind 
than  any  I  had  seen  at  Venice,  the  glorious  Assumption  ex- 
cepted.  The  coloring  in  its  glowing  depth  is  like  that  of 
Giorgione.  Vasari  tells  us  that  this  picture,  painted  when 
Carotto  was  young  (about  A.  D.  1495),  was  criticised  because 
the  limbs  of  the  angels  were  too  slender ;  to  which  Carotto, 
famous  for  his  repartees,  replied,  "  Then  they  will  fly  the 
better ! "  The  drawing,  however,  it  must  be  conceded,  is  not 
the  best  part  of  the  picture.  . 

The  earliest  picture  of  Titian  which  remains  to  us  is  a 
St.  Raphael  leading  Tobias  (in  the  church  of  S.  Marziale, 
Venice)  ;  beautiful,  but  not  equal,  certainly,  to  that  of  Carotto. 
Eaphael,  as  we  might  naturally  suppose,  painted  his  guardian 
angel  and  patron  saint  con  amore : 1  we  have  by  him  two  St. 
Raphaels ;  the  first,2  a  little  figure,  executed  when  he  was  a 
boy  in  the  studio  of  his  master  Perugino,  [was  formerly]  one 
side  of  an  altar-piece  in  the  Certosa  at  Pavia  [whence  it  has 
found  its  way  to  the  National  Gallery,  London].  Later  in 
life,  and  in  one  of  his  finest  works,  he  has  introduced  his 
patron  saint  with  infinite  beauty  of  feeling :  in  the  Madonna 
della  Pesce  (Madrid),  the  Virgin  sits  upon  her  throne,  with 
the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms ;  the  angel  Raphael  presents 
Tobias,  who  is  not  here  a  youth  but  a  child ;  while  the  In- 
fant Christ  turns  away  from  the  wise  bearded  old  doctor,  who 
is  intently  studying  his  great  book,  to  welcome  the  angel  and 
his  charge.  The  head  of  the  angel,  looking  up  in  the  face  of 
the  Madonna,  is  in  truth  sublime ;  it  would  be  impossible  to 
determine  whether  it  belongs  to  a  masculine  or  a  feminine 
being ;  but  none  could  doubt  that  it  is  a  divine  being,  filled 
with  fervent,  enthusiastic,  adoring  love.  The  fish  in  the 
hand  of  Tobias  has  given  its  name  to  the  picture ;  and  I  may 
as  well  observe  that  in  the  devotional  pictures,  where  the  fish 
is  merely  an  attribute,  expressing  Christian  baptism,  it  is 
usually  very  small ;  in  the  story  it  is  a  sort  of  monster,  which 
sprang  out  of  the  river  and  would  have  devoured  him. 

1  Passavant's  Rafael  [German   edition],  vol.  ii.  pp.  6,  150.     [Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle  are  loath  to  admit  the  authenticity  of  the  picture.] 

2  [Although  this  picture  is  attributed  to  Raphael  by  Passavant,  Crowe  anC 
Cavalcaselle  consider  it  the  work  of  Perugino,  to  whom  it  is  credited  in  the 
official  catalogue  of  the  National  Gallery,  1802.] 


122  OF  ANGELS  AND   ARCHANGELS 

All  the  subjects  in  which  the  Archangel  Raphael  is  an  actor 
belong  to  the  history  of  Tobit.  The  scenes  of  this  beautiful 
scriptural  legend  —  I  must  call  it  so  — have  been  popular 
subjects  of  Art,  particularly  in  the  later  schools,  and  have 
been  admirably  treated  by  some  of  the  best  Dutch  and  Flemish 
painters ;  the  combination  of  the  picturesque  and  poetical  with 
the  homely  and  domestic  recommended  it  particularly  to 
Rembrandt  and  his  school.  Tobias  dragging  the  fish  ashore, 
while  the  angel  stands  by,  is  a  fine  picturesque  landscape 
subject  which  has  been  often  repeated.  The  spirited  little 
sketch  by  Salvator  (Louvre),  in  which  the  figure  of  the 
guardian  angel  is  admirable  for  power  and  animated  grace ; 
the  twilight  effect  by  Rembrandt,  another  by  Domenichino 
(National  Gallery),  three  by  Claude,  *  may  be  cited  as  examples. 

In  such  pictures,  as  it  has  been  rightly  observed,  the  angel 
ought  not  to  have  wings :  he  is  disguised  as  the  friendly 
traveller.  The  dog,  which  ought  to  be  omitted  in  the  devo- 
tional pictures,  is  here  a  part  of  the  story,  and  figures  with 
great  propriety. 

Rembrandt  painted  the  parting  of  Tobias  and  his  parents 
four  times ;  Tobias  led  by  the  angel,  four  times  ;  Tobias  heal- 
ing his  father,  once ;  the  departure  of  the  angel,  twice.  Of 
this  last  subject,  the  picture  in  the  Louvre  may  be  pronounced 
one  of  his  finest,  —  miraculous  for  true  and  spirited  expres- 
sion, and  for  the  action  of  the  soaring  angel,  who  parts  the 
clouds  and  strikes  through  the  air  like  a  strong  swimmer 
through  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

The  story  of  Tobit,  as  a  series  of  subjects,  has  been  very 
frequently  represented,  always  in  the  genre  and  picturesque 
style  of  the  later  schools.  I  shall  have  to  return  to  it  here- 
after ;  here  I  have  merely  alluded  to  the  devotional  treatment, 
in  order  to  direct  attention  to  the  proper  character  of  the 
Archangel  Raphael. 

And  thus  we  have  shown 

How  Holy  Church 

Doth  represent  with  human  countenance 
Gabriel  and  Michael,  and  him  who  made 
Tobias  whole. 

Dante,  Par.  c.  iv. 

1  [Tobit  and  the  Angel  by  Claude  Lorraine  is  one  of  the  pictures  of  the 
Madrid  Gallery.  Another  is  in  the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg.] 


OF  ANGELS   AND   ARCHANGELS  123 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES  ON  ANGELS 

1.  In  a  picture  by  Gentile  da  Fabriano  (Berlin  Gallery),  the  Virgin  and 
Child  are  enthroned,  and  on  each  side  of  the  throne  is  a  tree,  on  the  branches 
of  which  are  little  red  Seraphim  winged  and  perched  like  birds,  singing  and 
making  music.    I  remember  also  a  little  Dutch  print  of  a  Riposo,  in  which 
live  little  angels  are  perched  on  the  trees  above,  singing  and  playing  for  the 
solace  of  the  divine  Infant.    Thus  we  have  Dante's  idea  of  the  Uccelli  di  Dio 
reproduced  in  a  more  familiar  form. 

2.  In  the  Convent  of  Sant'  Angelo  at  Bologna,  Camillo  Procaccino  painted 
the  "Acts  of  the  Holy  Angels"  in  the  following  order  :  1.  The  Fall  of  the 
Dragon.    2.  The  Angels  drive  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise.    3.  The  three 
Angels  visit  Abraham.    4.  The  Angel  stays  the  arm  of  Abraham.    5.  The 
Angel  wrestles  with  Jacob.    6.  The  Angels  visit  Jacob  in  a  Dream.    7.  The 
Angel  delivers  the  three  Children  in  the  burning  fiery  Furnace.    8.  The  An- 
gel slays  the  Host  of  Sennacherib.    9.  The  angel  protects  Tobit.    10.    The 
Punishment  of  Heliodorus.    11.  The  annunciation  to  Mary.    It  will  be  re- 
marked that  all  these  subjects  are  strictly  scriptural. 


III.   THE   FOUR  EVANGELISTS 

"  Matthew  wrote  for  the  Hebrews  ;  Mark,  for  the   Italians  ;  Luke,  for  the 
Greeks  ;  for  all,  the  great  herald  John."  —  GREGORY  NAZIANZEX. 

SINCE  on  the  Four  Evangelists,  as  the  witnesses  and  inter- 
preters of  a  revealed  religion,  the  whole  Christian  Church  may 
be  said  to  rest  as  upon  four  majestic  pillars,  we  cannot  be  sur- 
prised that  representations  of  them  should  abound,  and  that 
their  effigies  should  have  been  introduced  into  Christian  places 
of  worship  from  very  early  times.  Generally,  we  find  them 
represented  together,  grouped,  or  in  a  series  ;  sometimes  in  their 
collective  character,  as  the  Four  Witnesses ;  sometimes  in 
their  individual  character,  each  as  an  inspired  teacher,  or  benef- 
icent patron.  As  no  authentic  resemblances  of  these  sacred 
personages  have  ever  been  known  or  even  supposed  to  exist, 
such  representations  have  always  been  either  symbolical  or 
ideal.  In  the  symbol,  the  aim  was  to  embody,  under  some 
emblematical  image,  the  spiritual  mission  ;  in  the  ideal  por- 
trait, the  artist,  left  to  his  own  conception,  borrowed  from 
Scripture  some  leading  trait  (when  Scripture  afforded  any 
authority  for  such),  and  adding,  with  what  success  his  skill 
could  attain,  all  that  his  imagination  could  conceive,  as  ex- 
pressive of  dignity  and  persuasive  eloquence,  —  the  look  "  com- 
mercing with  the  skies,"  the  commanding  form,  the  reverend 
face,  the  ample  draperies,  —  he  put  the  book  or  the  pen  into 
his  hand,  and  thus  the  writer  and  the  teacher  of  the  truth  was 
placed  before  us. 

The  earliest  type  under  which  the  Four  Evangelists  are 
*  figured  is  an  emblem  of  the  simplest  kind :  four  scrolls  placed 
in  the  four  angles  of  a  Greek  cross,  or  four  books  (the  Gos- 
pels), representing  allegorically  those  who  wrote  or  promulgated 
them.  The  second  type  chosen  was  more  poetical  —  the  foui 
rivers  which  had  their  source  in  Paradise  :  representations  ot 
this  kind,  in  which  the  Saviour,  figured  as  a  lamb  holding  the 
cross,  or  in  His  human  form,  with  a  lamb  near  Him,  stands  on 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS  12o 

an  eminence,  from  which  gush  four  rivers  or  fountains,  are  to 
be  met  with  in  the  catacombs,  on  ancient  sarcophagi  preserved 
among  the  Christian  relics  in  the  Vatican,  and  in  several  old 
churches  constructed  between  the  second  and  the  fifth  century. 

At  what  period  the  four  mysterious  creatures  in  the  vision 
of  Ezekiel  (ch.  i.  5)  were  first  adopted  as  significant  symbols 
of  the  Four  Evangelists  does  not  seem  clear.  The  Jewish 
doctors  interpreted  them  as  figuring  the  four  Archangels,  — 
Michael,  Raphael,  Gabriel,  Uriel ;  and  afterwards  applied  them 
as  emblems  of  the  Four  Great  Prophets,  —  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  By  the  early  Oriental  Christians,  who 
typified  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  transfer  of  the 
emblem  to  the  Four  Evangelists  seems  obvious  and  easy  ;  we 
find  it  alluded  to  as  early  as  the  second  century.  The  four 
"  Beasts  "  of  corresponding  form  in  the  Revelation  (chap.  iv. 
7),  which  stood  round  the  throne  of  the  Lamb,  were  likewise 
thus  interpreted;  but  it  was  not  till  the  fifth  century  that  we 
find  these  symbols  assuming  a  visible  form,  and  introduced 
into  works  of  Art.  In  the  seventh  century  they  had  become 
almost  universal  as  distinctive  attributes. 

The  general  application  of  the  Four  Creatures  to  the  Four 
Evangelists  is  of  much  earlier  date  than  the  separate  and  indi- 
vidual application  of  each  symbol,  which  has  varied  at  different 
times ;  that  propounded  by  St.  Jerome,  in  his  commentary  on 
Ezekiel,  has  since  his  time  prevailed  universally.  Thus,  then, 
1.  To  St.  Matthew  was  given  the  CHERUB,  or  human  sem- 
blance, because  he  begins  his  Gospel  with  the  human  genera- 
tion of  Christ ;  or,  according  to  others,  because  in  his  Gospel 
the  human  nature  of  the  Saviour  is  more  insisted  on  than  the 
divine.  In  the  most  ancient  mosaics,  the  type  is  human,  not 
angelic,  for  the  head  is  that  of  a  man  with  a  beard.  2.  St. 
Mark  has  the  LION,  because  he  has  set  forth  the  royal  dignity 
of  Christ ;  or,  according  to  others,  because  he  begins  with  the 
mission  of  the  Baptist,  — "  the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the 
wilderness" — which  is  figured  by  the  lion;  or,  according 
to  a  third  interpretation,  the  lion  was  allotted  to  St.  Mark 
because  there  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  popular  belief  that 
the  young  of  the  lion  was  born  dead,  and  after  three  days  was 
awakened  to  vitality  by  the  breath  of  its  sire ;  some  authors, 
however,  represent  the  lion  as  vivifying  his  young  not  by  his 
breath,  but  by  his  roar.  In  either  case  the  application  is 


126  THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

the  same  ;  the  revival  of  the  young  lion  was  considered  as 
symbolical  of  the  resurrection,  and  Mark  was  commonly  called 
the  "  Historian  of  the  Resurrection.  '*  Another  commentator 
observes  that  Mark  begins  his  Gospel  with  "  roaring  "  —  "  the 
voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness  ;  "  and  ends  it  fearfully 
with  a  curse  —  "  He  that  believeth  not  shall  be  damned ;  "  and 
that,  therefore,  his  appropriate  attribute  is  the  most  terrible  of 
beasts,  the  lion.1  3.  Luke  has  the  Ox,  because  he  has  dwelt 
on  the  priesthood  f  Christ,  the  ox  being  the  emblem  of  sacri- 
fice. 4.  John  has  the  EAGLE,  which  is  the  symbol  of  the 
highest  inspiration,  because  he.  soared  upwards  to  the  contem- 
plation of  the  divine  nature  of  the  Saviour. 

But  the  order  in  which,  in  theological  Art,  these  symbols 
are  placed,  is  not  the  same  as  the  order  of  the  Gospels  accord- 
ing to  the  canon.  Rupertus  considers  the  Four  Beasts  as 
typical  of  the  Incarnation,  the  Passion,  the  Kesurrection,  and 
the  Ascension ;  an  idea  previously  dwelt  upon  by  Durandus, 
who  adds  that  the  man  and  the  lion  are  placed  on  the  right, 
because  the  incarnation  and  the  resurrection  are  the  joy  of  the 
whole  earth  ;  whilst  the  ox  is  on  the  left,  because  Christ's 
sacrifice  was  a  trouble  to  the  apostles  ;  and  the  eagle  is  above 
the  ox,  as  suggestive  of  our  Lord's  upward  flight  into  heaven. 
According  to  others,  the  proper  order  in  the  ascending  scale  is 
thus :  at  the  lowest  point  on  the  left,  the  ox ;  to  the  right, 
the  lion  ;  above  the  ox,  the  eagle;  and  above  all,  the  angel. 
So  in  Raphael's  Vision  of  Ezekiel  [Pitti,  Florence],  the  angel 
gazes  into  the  face  of  the  Holy  One,  the  others  form  His 
throne. 

I  have  dwelt  on  these  fanciful  interpretations  and  disquisi- 
tions, because  the  symbols  of  the  Evangelists  meet  us  at  every 
turn ;  in  the  mosaics  of  the  old  Italian  churches,  in  the  decora- 
tive sculpture  of  our  old  cathedrals,  in  the  Gothic  stained  glass, 
in  the  ancient  pictures  and  miniatures,  on  the  carved  and 
chased  covers  of  old  books ;  everywhere,  in  short,  where  enters 
the  idea  of  their  divine  mission  —  and  where  is  it  not  ?  The 
profound  thought,  as  well  as  the  vivid  imagination,  exercised 
in  some  of  these  early  works  of  Art,  is  beginning  to  be  appre- 
ciated ;  and  we  should  lose  the  half  of  what  is  poetical  and 
significant  and  venerable  in  these  apparently  arbitrary  and  fan- 

1  Rupertus,  Commentar.  in  Apocal.  c.  4.     Mark  xvi.  16. 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


127 


ciful  symbols,  if  we  merely  seized  the  general  intention,  and 
not  the  relative  and  appropriate  meaning  of  each. 

I  will  only  add  (for  I  have  restricted  myself  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  mysteries  of  faith  only  so  far  as  they  are 
carried  into  the  forms  of  Art)  that  these  symbols  of  the  Four 
Evangelists  were  in  their  combination  held  to  be  symbolical 
of  the  Eedeemer,  in  the  fourfold  character  then  universally 
assigned  to  Him,  as  man,  as  king,  as  high  priest,  and  as  God  ; 
according  to  this  Latin  verse  :  — 

Quatuor  hsec  Dominum  signant  animalia  Christum  : 
Est  Homo  nascendo,  vitulusque  sacer  moriendo, 
Et  Leo  surgendo,  coelos  n^uiVaque  petendo  ; 
Nee  minus  hos  scribas  animalia  et  ipsa  figurant. 

This  would  again  alter  the  received  order  of  the  symbols, 
and  place  the  angelic  or  human  semblance  lower  than  the  rest : 
but  I  have  never  seen  them  so  placed ;  at  least  I  can  recollect 
no  instance. 

A  Greek  mosaic,  existing  in  the  Convent  of  Vatopedi,  on 
Mount  Athos,  exhibits  an  attempt  to  reduce  to  form  the  wild 
and  sublime  imagery  of  the 
prophet  Ezekiel :   the  Evan- 
gelists, or  rather  the  Gospels, 
are  represented  as  the  tetra- 
morph,  or  four-faced  creature, 
with  wings  full  of  eyes,  and 
borne    on    wheels   of    living 
flame. 

The  Tetramorph,  i.  e.  the 
union  of  the  four  attributes 
of  the  Evangelists  in  one 
figure,  is  in  Greek  Art  always 
angelic  or  winged  —  a  mys- 
terious thing.  The  Tetra- 
morph in  Western  Art  has  in  some  instances  become  monstrous, 
instead  of  mystic  and  poetical.  In  a  miniature  of  the  "  Hortus 
Deliciarum"  we  find  the  new  Law,  or  Christianity,  represented 
as  a  woman  crowned  and  seated  on  an  animal  which,  with  the 
body  of  a  horse,  has  the  four  heads  of  the  mystic  creatures ; 
and  of  the  four  feet,  one  is  human ;  one  hoofed,  for  the  ox ; 
one  clawed  like  an  eagle's ;  and  one  like  a  lion's  ;  underneath 
is  inscribed  Animal  Ecclesice.  In  some  other  examples,  the 


St.  Matthew  (Mosaic) 


128 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


St.  Luke  (Mosaic) 


Church,  or  the  new  Law,  is 
seated  in  a  triumphal  car, 
drawn  by  the  eagle,  the  lion, 
and  the  ox,  while  the  angel 
holds  the  reins  and  drives  as 

charioteer, 

rr(,  ,  ... 

Ihe    early    images  of  the 

Evangelical  symbol  are  uni- 
formly      represented       with 
wings,  for  the  same  reason  that 
wings  were  given  to  the  an- 
gels, —  they  were  angels,  i.  e. 
bringers  of  good  tidings  :  for 
instance,  in  the  earliest  exam- 
ple to  which  I  can  refer,  a 
rude  fragment  of  a  bas-relief 
in  terra-cotta  found  in  the  cat- 
acombs, which  represents  a  lamb  with  a  glory  holding  a  cross ; 
on  the  right,  an  angel  in  a  sacerdotal  garment  (St.  Matthew), 
on  the  left  the  winged  ox  (St.  Luke),  each  holding  a  book. 

In  the  incest  ancient  Christian  churches  we  find  these  sym- 
bols perpetually  recurring,  generally  in  or  over  the  recess  at  the 
east  end  (the  apsis,  or  tribune),  where  stands  the  altar.  And 
as  the  image  of  Christ,  as  the  Redeemer,  either  under  the  sem- 
blance of  the  lamb,  or  in 
His  human  likeness,  as  a 
grand,  calm,  solemn  figure 
enthroned,  and  in  the  act 
of  benediction,  forms  inva- 
riably the  principal  object ; 
almost  as  invariably  the 
Evangelists  are  either  at 
the  four  corners,  or  ranged 
in  a  line  above  or  below, 
or  they  are  over  the  arch  in 
front  of  the  tribune.  Some- 
times they  are  the  heads 
only  of  the  mystic  creatures 
on  an  azure  ground,  studded 
with  stars,  floating  as  in  a  firmament ;  or  the  half  figure  ends 
in  a  leafy  scroll,  like  the  genii  in  an  arabesque;  or  the  creature 


St.  Mark  (Mosaic) 


THE   FOUK   EVANGELISTS 


129 


is  given  at  full  length  and  entire,  with  four  wings,  holding  the 
book,  and  looking  much  like  a  figure  in  heraldry. 

The  next  step  was  the  combination  of  the  emblem  with  the 
human  form,  i.  e.  the 
head  of  the  lion,  ox, 
or  eagle,  set  upon  the 
figure  of  a  man.  There 
is  a  figure  of  St.  John 
standing,  with  the  head 
of  an  eagle,  holding  the 
Gospel.  There  is  an- 
other rudely  engraved 
in  Mlinter's  work,  with 
shoulders,  and  a  scroll. 


St.  John  (Mosaic) 


upon  the 
St.   John 


the  eagle's    head,  wings 
I   remember  another  of 
seated,  writing,  with  the  head  and  clawed  feet  of  an   eagle, 
and  the  body  and  hands  of  a  man.     Such  figures  as  a  series  I 
have  seen  in  ornaments,  and  frequently  in  illuminated  MSS., 
but  seldom  in  churches,  and  never  of 

rL  •  M  •  N  •  (•  C  a  l&r§e  s^ze<  ^  very  striking  and 
comparatively  modern  example  of 
this  peculiar  treatment  occurs  in  a 
bas-relief  on  the  door  of  the  Col- 
lege of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  Lawrence, 
at  Castiglione,  in  which  the  Four 
Evangelists  are  represented  as  half- 
length  human  figures,  amply  draped 
and  holding  the  Gospels,  each  with 
the  emblematic  head  and  large  out- 
spread wings.  The  bronze  bas-reliefs 
of  the  Evangelists  on  each  side  of  the 
choir  of  St.  Antonio,  at  Padua,  are 
similar  in  form,  and  very  fine,  both  in 
conception  and  workmanship. 

There  is  a  series  of  full-length 
figures  in  the  first  compartment  of 
the  Life  of  Christ  by  Angelico  da 
Fiesole  (Florence  Academy).  In  the 
original  the  figures  stand  round  a 
mystic  circle,  alternately  with  the 
prophets.  We  must  remember,  that 
St.  John  (Mosaic)  however  monstrous  and  grotesque-  such 


130 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


figures  may  appear  to  the  eye,  they  are  not  more  unnatural 
than  the  angelic  representations  with  which  we  are  so  familiar 
that  we  see  in  them  beauty  only  —  not  considering  that  men 
with  the  wings  of  birds  are  as  merely  emblematical  and  impos- 
sible as  men  with  animal  heads.  It  is  interesting,  and  leads 
the  mind  to  many  speculations,  to  remark  that  the  Babylonish 
captivity  must  have  familiarized  the  Israelites  with  the  com- 
bination of  the  human  and  animal  attributes  in  the  same  figure. 
The  gigantic  bas-reliefs  from  Nineveh  show  us  winged  bulls 
with  human  heads,  and  the  human  form  with  the  eagle's  head 

and  wings.  This  figure, 
for  example,  is  not  un- 
like some  early  figures 
of  St.  John,  if  we  sub- 
stitute the  book  and  the 
pen  for  the  basket  and 
the  pine-cone. 

In  a  few  later  exam- 
ples the  only  symbolical 
attribute  retained  is  a 
pair  of  wings. 

These  animal  sym- 
bols, whether  alone  or 
in  combination  with  the 
human  forms,  were  per- 
fectly intelligible  to  the 
people,  sanctified  in  their 
eyes  by  tradition,  by 
custom,  and  by  the  most 
solemn  associations.  All 
direct  imitation  of  nature 
was,  by  the  best  paint- 
Assyrian  Symbol  ers,  carefully  avoided. 

In  this  respect  how  fine 

is  Eaphael's  Vision  of  Ezekiel !  how  sublime  and  how  true 
in  feeling  and  conception  !  where  the  Messiah  comes  floating 
along,  upborne  by  the  Four  Creatures  —  mysterious,  spiritual, 
wonderful  beings,  animals  in  form,  but  in  all  else  unearthly, 
and  the  winged  ox  not  less  divine  than  the  winged  angel ! 1 

1  There  is  a  small  and  beautiful  picture  by  Giulio  Romano  in  the  Belve- 
dere at  Vienna,  representing  the  emblems  of  the  Four  Evangelists  grouped 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


131 


Whereas,  in  the  later  times,  when  the  artist  piqued  himself 
upon  the  imitation  of  nature,  the  mystic  and  venerable  signifi- 
cance was  wholly  lost.     As  a  striking  instance  of  this  mistaken 
style  of  treatment,  we  may  turn  to  the  famous  group  of  the 
Four  Evangelists  by  Rubens,  grand,  colossal,  standing  or  rather 
moving     figures,     each 
with     his     emblem,     if 
emblems    they    can    be 
called  which  are  almost 
as  full  of  reality  as  na- 
ture itself,  —  the  ox  so 
like  life,  we  expect  him 
to    bellow    at    us;    the 
magnificent    lion    flour- 
ishing his  tail,  and  look- 
ing at   St.  Mark   as  if 
about   to   roar  at  him ! 
—  and    herein  lies  the 
mistake    of    the    great 
painter,    that,    for     the 
religious  and  mysterious 
emblem,    he     has    Sub- 
stituted   the    creatures    themselves ;    this    being    one    of    the 
instances,  not  \infrequent  in  Art,  in  which  the  literal  truth 
becomes  a  manifest  falsehood.     (Grosvenor  Gallery  [London].) 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration  the  Four  Evangelists  are  some- 
times grouped  significantly  with  the  Four  Greater  Prophets  ; 
thus  representing  the  connection  between  the  new  and  the 
old  Law.  I  met  with  a  curious  instance  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Chartres.  The  five  great  windows  over  the  south  door  may  be 
said  to  contain  a  succinct  system  of  theology,  according  to  the  be- 
lief of  the  thirteenth  century  :  here  the  Virgin,  i.  e.  the  Church 
or  Religion,  occupies  the  central  window  ;  on  one  side  is  Jere- 
miah, carrying  on  his  shoulders  St.  Luke,  and  Isaiah  carrying 
St.  Matthew  ;  on  the  other  side  Ezekiel  bears  St.  John,  and 
Daniel,  St.  Mark ;  thus  representing  the  New  Testament  rest- 
ing on  the  Old. 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration,  and  particularly  in  the  stained 
glass,  they  are  often  found  in  combination  with  the  Four  Doc- 

in  a  picturesque  manner,  which  was  probably  suggested  by  Raphael's  cele- 
brated picture,  which  is  in  the  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence. 


St.  Mark  (Mosaic 


132 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


St.  John  St.  Luke  St.  Matthew  St.  Mark 

The  Evangelists  (S.  Vitale,  Ravenna) 

tors,  the  Evangelists  being  considered  as  witnesses,  the  Doctors 
as  interpreters,  of  the  truth ;  or  as  a  series  with  the  Four 
Greater  Prophets,  the  Foiir  Sibyls,  and  the  Four  Doctors  of 
the  Church,  the  Evangelists  taking  the  third  place. 

If,  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century,  we  find  the  Evangelists 
still  expressed  by  the  mystic  emblems  (as  in  the  fine  bronzes 
in  the  choir  of  Sant'  Antonio  at  Padua),  as  early  as  the  sixth 
we  have  in  the  Greek  MSS.  and  mosaics  the  Evangelists  as 
venerable  men,  and  promulgators  of  a  revelation  ;  as  in  San 
Vitale  at  Kavenna  (A.  D.  547)  :  on  each  side  of  the  choir,  near- 
est the  altar,  we  find  the  prophets  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah ;  then 
follow  the  Evangelists,  two  on  each  side,  all  alike,  all  classi- 
cally draped  in  white  tunics,  each  holding  an  open  book,  on 
which  is  inscribed  "  Secundum  Marcum,"  "  Secundum  Johan- 
nem,"  etc. ;  and  above  each  the  animal  symbol  or  attribute, 
large,  full  length,  and  grandly  designed.  In  modern  ecclesias- 
tical decoration,  the  usual  and  appropriate  situation  of  the 
Four  Evangelists  is  immediately  under  the  dome,  nearest  to 
the  Saviour  after  the  angels,  or  after  the  prophets,  where  either 
are  introduced.  I  will  mention  here  a  few  examples  celebrated 
in  the  history  of  Art ;  premising  that  among  the  works  of  Le- 
onardo, of  Michael  Angelo,  and  Kaphael,  we  find  no  represen- 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS  133 

tations  of  the  Four  Evangelists  ;  which  is  singular,  considering 
that  such  figures  entered  necessarily  into  every  scheme  of  theo- 
logical decorative  Art. 

By  Cimabue  (A.  D.  1270),  larger  than  life,  on  the  vault  of 
the  choir  in  Sah  Francesco  d'  Assisi. 

By  Giotto  (A.  D.  1320),  in  [S.  Giovanni  Evangelista],  at 
Eavenna ;  seated,  and  each  accompanied  by  one  of  the  doctors 
of  the  Church. 

By  Angelico  (A.  D.  1390),  round  the  dome  of  the  chapel  of 
San  Niccolo,  in  the  Vatican ;  all  seated,  each  with  his  emblem. 

By  Masaccio  (A.  D.  1420),  round  the  dome  of  the  chapel  of 
the  Passion  in  San  Clemente,  at  Eome  ;  admirable  for  simple 
grandeur. 

On  the  dome  of  the  chapel  del  Cambio,  at  Perugia ;  the 
heads  admirable.  [By  Manni,  in  Peruginesque  style.1] 

By  Correggio  (A.  D.  1520),  immediately  under  the  cupola 
of  San  Giovanni  [Parma],  in  four  lunettes,  magnificent  fig- 
ures :  and  again  in  -,  the  Cathedral  of  Parma,  each  seated  in 
glory,  with  one  of  the  doctors  of  the  Church.  • 

By  Domenichino,  two  sets  (A.  D.  1620).  Those  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Andrea  della  Valle,  at  Eome,  are  considered  his 
finest  works,  and  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Art :  they  are 
grand  figures.  The  emblematical  animals  are  here  combined 
with  the  personages  in  a  manner  the  most  studied  and  pictur- 
esque ;  and  the  angels  which  sport  around  them,  playing  with 
the  mane  of  St.  Mark's  lion,  or  the  pallet  and  pencils  of  St. 
Luke,  are  like  beautiful  "  Amoretti,"  —  but  we  hardly  think 
of  angels.  The  series  at  Grotta-Ferrata  is  inferior. 

The  Four  Evangelists  by  Valentin  (A.  D.  1632),  in  the 
Louvre,2  had  once  great  celebrity,  and  have  been  often  en- 
graved ;  they  appear  to  me  signal  examples  of  all  that  should 
be  avoided  in  character  and  sentiment.  St.  Matthew,  for  ex- 
ample, is  an  old  beggar  ;  the  model  for  the  attendant  angel  is 
a  little  French  gamin,  "  k  qui  Valentin  a  commande  de  sortir 
un  bras  de  la  manche  de  sa  chemise,  que  de  1'autre  main  il 
soutient  gauchement." 

Le  Sueur  (A.  D.  1655)  has  represented  the  Four  Evangelists 
seated  at  a  table  writing ;  the  Holy  Ghost  descends  upon  them 
in  the  form  of  a  dove. 

1  [See  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,  vol.  iii.  p.  338.] 

2  [Not  in  Villot's  catalogue  of  1891.] 


134  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  we  find  sets 
of  the  Evangelists  in  which  the  emblems  are  altogether  omit- 
ted, and  the  personages  distinguished  by  their  situation,  or  by 
their  names  inscribed  under  or  over  them ;  but  we  miss  those 
antique  scriptural  attributes  which  placed  them  before  us  as 
beings  foreshadowed  in  the  prophecies  uttered  of  old ;  they 
have  become  mere  men. 

This  must  suffice  for  the  Evangelists  considered  as  a  series 
and  in  their  collective  character ;  but  it  will  be  .interesting  to 
pause  for  a  moment,  and  take  a  rapid  retrospective  view  of  the 
progress,  from  first  to  last,  in  the  expression  of  an  idea  through 
form.  * 

First,  we  have  the  mere  fact ;  the  four  scrolls,  or  the  four 
books. 

Next,  the  idea ;  the  four  rivers  of  salvation  flowing  from 
on  high,  to  fertilize  the  whole  earth. 

Thirdly,  the  prophetic  Symbol ;  the  winged  cherub  of  four- 
fold aspect. 

Next,  the  Christian  Symbol ;  the  four  "  beasts "  in  the 
Apocalypse,  with  or  without  the  angel-wings. 

Then  the  combination  of  the  emblematical  animal  with  the 
human  form. 

Then  the  human  personages,  each  of  venerable  or  inspired 
aspect,  as  becomes  the  teacher  and  witness ;  and  each  attended 
by  the  scriptural  emblem  —  no  longer  an  emblem,  but  an  attri- 
bute—  marking  his  individual  vocation  and  character. 

And,  lastly,  the  emblem  and  attribute  both  discarded,  we 
have  the  human  being  only,  holding  his  Gospel,  i.  e.  his  ver- 
sion of  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 

ST.  MATTHEW 

Lot.  S.  Mattheus.     Ital.  San  Matteo.     Fr.  Saint  Matthieu.     Ger. 
St.  Matthaus.     (Sept.  21.) 

St.  Matthew  among  the  Apostles  takes  the  seventh  or 
eighth  place,  but  as  an  Evangelist  he  always  stands  first,  because 
his  Gospel  was  the  earliest  written.  Very  little  is  certainly 
known  concerning  him,  his  name  occurring  but  once  in  his  own 
Gospel,  and  in  the  other  Gospels  only  incidentally  with  refer- 
ence to  two  events. 


ST.    MATTHEW 


135 


He  was  a  Hebrew  by  birth  ;  by  profession  a  publican,  or 
tax-gatherer,  in  the  service  of  the  Romans  —  an  office  very 
lucrative,  but  particularly  odious  in  the  sight  of  his  country- 
men. His  original  name  was  Levi.  It  is  recorded  in  few 
words,  that  as  he  sat  at  the  receipt  of  custom  by  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth,  Jesus  in  passing  by  saw  him,  and  said  unto  him, 
"Follow  me,"  and  he  left 
all  and  followed  Him  ;  and 
further,  that  he  made  a 
feast  in  his  house,  at 
which  many  publicans  and 
sinners  sat  down  with  the 
Lord  and  His  disciples,  to 
the  great  astonishment  and 
scandal  of  the  Jews.  So 
far  the  sacred  record :  the 
traditional  and  legendary 
history  of  St.  Matthew  is 
equally  scanty.  It  is  re- 
lated in  the  "  Perfetto  Le- 
gendario "  that,  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  apostles, 
he  travelled  into  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia,  preaching 
the  Gospel ;  and  having 
arrived  in  the  capital  of 
Ethiopia,  he  lodged  in  the 
house  of  the  eunuch  who 
had  been  baptized  by 
Philip,  and  who  enter- 
tained him  with  great 

honor.  There  were  two  terrible  magicians  at  that  time  in 
Ethiopia,  who  by  their  diabolical  spells  and  incantations  kept 
all  the  people  in  subjection,  afflicting  them  at  the  same  time 
with  strange  and  terrible  diseases ;  but  St.  Matthew  overcame 
them,  and  having  baptized  the  people,  they  were  delivered  for- 
ever from  the  malignant  influence  of  these  enchanters.  And 
further,  it  is  related  that  St.  Matthew  raised  the  son  of  the 
King  of  Egypt  from  the  dead,  and  healed  his  daughter  of  the 
leprosy.  The  princess,  whose  name  was  Iphigenia,  he  placed 
at  the  head  of  a  community  of  virgins  dedicated  to  the  service 


St.  Matthew  (Raphael) 


136  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

of  God  ;  and  a  certain  wicked  heathen  king,  having  threatened 
to  tear  her  from  her  asylum,  was  struck  by  leprosy,  and  his 
palace  destroyed  by  fire.  St.  Matthew  remained  twenty-three 
years  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  it  is  said  that  he  perished  in 
the  ninetieth  year  of  our  era,  under  Domitian  ;  but  the  manner 
of  his  death  is  uncertain  ;  according  to  the  Greek  legend,  he 
died  in  peace,  but  according  to  the  tradition  of  the  Western 
Church,  he  suffered  martyrdom  either  by  the  sword  or  the 
spear. 

Few  churches  are  dedicated  to  St.  Matthew.  I  am  not  aware 
that  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  any  country,  trade,  or  profession, 
unless  it  be  that  of  tax-gatherer  or  exciseman ;  and  this  is 
perhaps  the  reason  that,  except  where  he  figures  as  one  of  the 
series  of  evangelists  or  apostles,  he  is  so  seldom  represented 
alone,  or  in  devotional  pictures.  In  a  large  altar-piece,  the 
"  San  Matteo "  of  Annibal  Caracci  (Dresden  Gallery),  he  is 
standing  before  the  throne  of  the  Madonna,  as  a  pendant  to 
John  the  Baptist,  and  gives  his  name  to  the  picture  :  but  such 
examples  are  uncommon.  When  he  is  portrayed  as  an  evan- 
gelist, he  holds  a  book  or  a  pen ;  and  the  angel,  his  proper 
attribute  and  attendant,  stands  by,  pointing  up  to  heaven,  or 
dictating  ;  or  he  holds  the  inkhorn,  or  he  supports  the  book. 
In  his  character  of  apostle,  St.  Matthew  frequently  holds  a 
purse  or  money-bag,  as  significant  of  his  former  vocation. 

Neither  are  pictures  from  his  life  of  frequent  occurrence. 
The  principal  incident,  entitled  the  "  Calling  of  Matthew," 
has  been  occasionally,  but  not  often,  treated  in  painting.  The 
motif  is  simple  and  not  easily  mistaken.  St.  Matthew  is 
seated  at  a  kind  of  desk  with  money  before  him ;  various 
personages  bring  tribute  ;  on  one  side  is  seen  Christ,  with  one 
or  two  of  His  disciples,  generally  Peter  and  Andrew  ;  St. 
Matthew  is  either  looking  towards  Him  with  an  expression  of 
awestruck  attention,  or  he  is  rising  from  his  seat,  as  in  the  act 
to  follow  :  the  mere  accessories  and  number  of  the  personages 
vary  with  the  period  of  the  composition  and  the  taste  of  the 
painter. 

1.  The  earliest  instance  I  can  cite,  probably  the  oldest 
which  has  come  down  to  us,  is  in  a  Greek  MS.  of  the  ninth 
century  (Paris,  Bib.  du  Roi).  St.  Matthew  sits  with  both 
hands  on  a  heap  of  gold  lying  on  a  table  before  him  :  he 
looks  round  at  Christ,  who  is  a  little  behind. 


ST.   MATTHEW  137 

2.  St.  Matthew  is  about  to  rise  to  follow  the  Saviour ;  by 
Matteo  di  Ser  Cambio  of  Perugia,  who  has  represented  his 
patron  saint  in  a  small  composition  (A.  D.  1377.     Engraved 
in  Rosini,  pi.  24). 

3.  In  the  Queen's  Gallery  at  Buckingham  Palace  there  is  a 
very  curious  and  interesting  picture  of  this  subject  by  Mabuse, 
which  once   belonged  to  King  Charles   I.,    and  is  quaintly 
described  in  the  old  catalogue  of  his  pictures  as  "  a  very  old, 
defaced,  curious  altar-piece,  \ipon  a  thick  board,  where  Christ 
is  calling  St.  Matthew  out  of  the  custom-house ;  which  picture 
was  got  in  Queen    Elizabeth's  days,  in  the  taking  of  Calus 
Malus  (Cadiz),  in  Spain.     Painted  upon  a  board  in  a  gilded 
arched  frame,  like  an  altar-piece  ;  containing  ten  big  figures,  less 
than  half  so  big  as  the  life,  and  some  twenty-two  afar  off  less 
figures.     Given  to  the  King."     In  the  foreground  there  is  a 
rich  architectural  porch,  from  which  St.  Matthew  is  issuing  in 
haste,  leaving  his  money-bags  behind ;    and  in  the  background 
is  seen  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth  and  shipping.     This  picture 
was  among  the  booty  taken  in  Essex's  expedition  against  Cadiz 
in  1596,  and  probably  stolen  from  some  church. 

4.  In  the  Vienna   Gallery   I  found   three  .pictures  of  the 
same  subject,  all  by  Hemessen,  very  quaint  and  curious. 

5.  At  Dresden  the  same  subject  in  the  Venetian  style  [at- 
tributed to]  Pordenone.      [Both  Morelli  and  Dr.   Woermann 
are  doubtful  of  the  authenticity  of  this  picture.     It  is  perhaps 
a  copy  by  a  Flemish  artist.] 

6.  By  Ludovico  Caracci,  a  grand  scenic  picture,  painted  for 
the  Mendicanti  in  Bologna.      (Xow  in  the  Bologna  Gallery.) 

7.  In  a  chapel  of  the  church  of  San  Luigi  de'  Francesi,  at 
Home,  there  are  three  pictures  by  Caravaggio  from  the  life  of 
St.  Matthew.      Over  the  altar  is  the  saint  writing  his  Gospel ; 
he  looks  up  at  the  attendant  angel,  who  is  behind  with  out- 
spread wings,  and  in  the  act  of  dictating.       On  the  left  is  the 
calling  of   St.   Matthew :    the  saint,  who   has  been  counting 
money,  rises  with  one  hand  on  his  breast,  and  turns  to  follow 
the  Saviour ;  an  old  man,  with  spectacles  on  his  nose,  exam- 
ines with   curiosity  the   personage   whose   summons   has  had 
such  a  miraculous  effect ;  a  boy  is  slyly  appropriating  the  money 
which  the  apostle  has  thrown  down.      The  third  picture  is  the 
martyrdom  of   the   saint,  who,  in   the   sacerdotal   habit,  lies 
extended  on  a  block,  while  a  half-naked  executioner  raises  the 


138 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


Christ  and  St.  Matthew  (attributed  to  Pordenone) 

sword,  and  several  spectators  shrink  hack  with  horror.  There 
is  nothing  dignified  or  poetical  in  these  representations  ;  and 
though  painted  with  all  that  power  of  effect  which  character- 
ized Caravaggio,  then  at  the  height  of  his  reputation,  they 
have  also  his  coarseness  of  feeling  and  execution  :  the  priests 
were  (not  without  reason)  dissatisfied  ;  and  it  required  all  the 
influence  of  his  patron,  Cardinal  Giustiniani,  to  induce  them  to 
retain  the  pictures  in  the  church  where  we  now  see  them. 
Here  we  sympathize  with  the  priests,  rather  than  with  the 
artist  and  his  patron. 

The  Feast  which  St.  Matthew  made  for  our  Saviour  and 
His  disciples  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Paul  Veronese's  gorgeous 
banquet  scenes ;  that  which  he  painted  for  the  refectory  of  the 
Convent  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul  at  Venice.  It  is  now  in  the 
Academy,  filling  up  the  end  wall  of  one  of  the  great  rooms 
from  side  to  side,  and  seeming  to  let  in  light  and  air  through 
the  lofty  marble  porticoes,  which  give  us  such  a  magnificent 
idea  of  the  splendor  which  surrounded  Levi  before  he  left  all 
to  follow  Jesus, 


ST.   MARK  139 

In  all  the  representations  of  the  death  of  St.  Matthew, 
except  those  of  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  school,  he  dies  by  the 
sword.  The  Greek  artists  uniformly  exhibit  him  as  dying  in 
peace,  while  an  angel  swings  the  censer  beside  his  bed ;  as  on 
the  ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo  at  Rome. 

Pictures  from  the  legendary  life  of  St.  Matthew  are  very 
rare.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of 
San  Matteo,  at  Eavenna,  attributed  to  Giotto.  They  are  so 
much  ruined  that,  of  the  eight  subjects  represented,  only  three 
—  his  vocation,  his  preaching  and  healing  the  sick  in  Ethiopia, 
and  the  baptism  of  the  king  and  queen  —  can  be  made  out. 
In  the  Bedford  missal  at  Paris  I  found  a  miniature,  repre- 
senting St.  Matthew  "  healing,  the  son  and  daughter  of  King 
Egyptus  of  the  leprosy ; "  but,  as  a  subject  of  Art,  he  is  not 
popular. 

ST.  MARK 

Lat.  S.  Marcus.    Ital.  San  Marco  Evangelista.    Fr.  St.  Marc.     Ger. 
Der  Heilige  Marcus.     (April  25.     A.  D.  68.) 

St.  Mark  the  Evangelist  was  not  one  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles :  his  conversion  apparently  took  place  after  the  ascension. 
He  was  the  companion  and  assistant  of  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
with  whom  he  preached  the  Gospel  among  the  Gentiles.  Ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  received  in  the  Roman  Church,  he 
was  converted  by  St.  Peter,  and  became  his  favorite  disciple ; 
attended  him  first  to  Aquileia,  where  they  converted  and  bap- 
tized the  people  on  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  and  thence  to 
Rome.  While  there  he  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  use  of  the 
Roman  converts,  —  some  say  from  the  dictation  of  the  apostle. 
He  afterwards,  by  command  of  St.  Peter,  went  to  preach  the 
Gospel  in  Egypt ;  and  after  preaching  in  Lybia  and  Thebais 
for  twelve  years,  he  founded  the  church  of  Alexandria,  subse- 
quently one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  early  Christian 
churches.  The  ire  of  the  heathen  being  stirred  up  against 
him  because  of  his  miracles,  they  reviled  him  as  a  magician, 
and,  during  the  feast  of  their  god  Serapis,  seized  him  while 
in  the  act  of  worship,  bound  him,  and  dragged  him  along 
the  streets  and  highways,  and  over  stony  and  rocky  places,  till 
he  perished  miserably ;  at  the  same  time  a  dreadful  tempest  of 
hail  and  lightning  fell  upon  his  murderers,  by  which  they 


uo 


THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 


were  dispersed  and  destroyed.  The  Christians  of  Alexandria 
buried  his  mangled  remains,  and  his  sepulchre  was  regarded 
with  great  reverence  for  several  centuries.  About  815  A.  D., 
some  Venetian  merchants  trading  to  Alexandria  carried  off  the 
relics  (literally  stole  them,  —  "convey  the  wise  it  call !  "),  and 
they  were  deposited  in  the  city  of  Venice,  where  the  stately 
church  of  St.  Mark  was  built  over  them.  Since  that  time,  St. 
Mark  has  been  honored  as  the  patron  saint  of  Venice,  and  his 
legendary  history  has  supplied  the  Venetian  painters  with 
many  beautiful  and  picturesque  subjects. 

When  St.  Mark  is  represented  as  one  of  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists, either  singly  or  grouped  with  the  others,  he  is  almost 
invariably  accompanied  by  the  Jion,  winged  or  unwinged,  but 

generally  '  winged,  — 
which  distinguishes  him 
from  St.  Jerome,  who  is 
also  accompanied  by  the 
lion,  but  unwinged,  as 
we  shall  see  hereafter. 

In  devotional  repre- 
sentations, St.  Mark 
often  wears  the  habit  of 
bishop,  as  first  bishop  of 
Alexandria.  He  is  thus 
represented  in  the  colos- 
sal mosaic  over  the  prin- 
cipal door  of  St.  Mark's 
at  Venice 1  in  the  pon 
tificals  of  a -Greek  bishop, 
no  mitre,  short  gray  hair 
and  beard ;  one  hand 
raised  in  benediction, 
the  other  holding  the 
Gospel. 

Of  the  innumerable 
pictures  in  which  St. 
Mark  figures  as  patron  of  Venice,  I  can  afford  to  give  a  few 
examples  only. 

1.  A.  Busati.      He  is  seated  on  a  throne ;  an  open  book  in 
one  hand,  bearing  inscribed  the  Venetian  motto  ("  la  Leggenda 
1  Designed  by  Titian  [or  in  his  workshop],  and  executed  by  F.  Zuccati. 


St.  Mark  (Titian) 


ST.   MARK  141 

dd  Veneti")  PAX  TIBI,  MARCE,  EVANGELISTA  MEUS;  the 
other  hand  blessing :  behind  him  a  fig-tree,  with  leaves  and  no 
fruit ;  probably  in  allusion  to  the  text,  ch.  xi.  13,  which  is 
peculiar  to  St.  Mark.  On  his  right  stands  St.  Andrew  bearing 
a  cross ;  on  the  left  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena ;  behind  him  the 
apple-tree  which  "  brought  death  into  the  world  and  all  our 
woe."  This  votive  picture,  from  its  mystical  accessories  and 
the  introduction  of  St.  Bernardino,  was  probably  painted  for 
the  Franciscans  (i  Frari)  of  Venice  ;  it  is  now  in  the  Academy 
there. 

2.  St.  Mark  on  a  lofty  throne  holds  his  Gospel  in  his  hand ; 
at  his  feet  the  four  saints  who  &re  protectors  against  sickness 
and  pestilence,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Roch,  St.  Cosmo,  and  St. 
Damian  :  a  splendid  picture  in  Titian's  early  manner.  (It  is 
so  like  Giorgione  in  sentiment  and  color  that  it  has  been  attri- 
buted to  him.)  [Painted  for  the  canons  of  San  Spirito  in 
Isola,  but  now  in  S.  Salute,  Venice.]  3.  St.  Mark  plants  the 
standard  of  Venice,  by  Bonifazio.  And  4.  "  San  Marco  che 
assista  all'  coscrizione  maritima "  (i.  e.  the  enlisting  of  the 
mariners  for  the  service  of  the  State),  by  G.  del  Moro,  both 
curious  instances  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Venetians  mixed 
up  their  patron  saint  with  all  their  political  and  military  trans- 
actions. 5.  St.  Mark  presents  the  Doge  Leonardo  Dona  to 
the  Virgin ;  the  most  remarkable  of  a  numerous  class  of  votive 
pictures  common  in  the  Venetian  school,  in  which  St.  Mark 
introduces  either  the  Doge  or  some  general  or  magnifico  to  the 
Virgin. 

A  very  remarkable  and  beautiful  picture  of  this  class  is  in 
the  Berlin  Gallery  [Tintoretto],  St.  Mark,  enthroned  and 
holding  his  Gospel  open  on  his  knees,  is  instructing  three  of 
the  Procuradori  di  San  Marco,  who  kneel  before  him  in  their 
rich  crimson  dresses,  and  listen  reverently. 

Among  the  devotional  pictures  of  St.  Mark,  one  of  the  most 
famous  is  that  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti.  He 
is  represented  as  a  man  in  the  prime  of  life,  with  bushy  hair 
and  a  short  reddish  beard,  throned  in  a  niche,  and  holding  in 
one  hand  the  Gospel,  in  the  other  a  pen  ;  the  lion  is  omitted. 
The  Frate  painted  this  picture  for  his  own  convent  of  San 
Marco  at  Florence.  It  is  much  lauded  and  celebrated,  but 
the  attitude  appeared  to  me  rather  forced,  and  the  features 
rather  commonplace, 


l42  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

The  legend  which  describes  St.  Mark  as  the  disciple  and 
amanuensis  of  St.  Peter  has  given  occasion  for  those  votive 
pictures  in  which  they  are  represented  together.  1.  In  the 
treasury  of  St.  Mark's  (Venice,  Ducal  Palace)  is  preserved  a 
golden  reliquary  of  a  square  form,  containing,  it  is  said,  a  frag- 
ment of  the  original  Gospel  in  the  handwriting  of  St.  Mark ; 


St.  Mark  (Bartolommeo) 


the  chased  cover  represents  St.  Peter  on  a  throne,  and  before 
him  kneels  the  evangelist,  writing  from  his  dictation.  2.  And 
again,  in  an  ancient  Greek  Evangelarium,  St.  Mark  is  seated, 
writing ;  St.  Peter  stands  before  him  with  his  hand  raised  as 
dictating.  3.  In  a  beautiful  picture  by  Angelico  da  Fiesole 
[the  predella  of  a  Madonna],  St.  Peter  is  in  a  pulpit  preaching 
to  the  Romans ;  and  Mark,  seated,  is  taking  down  his  words 
in  a  book  [Uffizi,  Florence].  4.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Mark 
standing  together,  the  former  holding  a  book,  the  latter  a  pen, 


ST.    MARK  143 

with  an  inkhorn  suspended  from  his  girdle,  by  Bellini ; l  and 
5,  a  similar  one  by  Bonvicino  [called  Moretto]  —  very  beau- 
tiful (Brera,  Milan).2  Such  pictures  are  extrpmely  interesting, 
showing  the  opinion  generally  entertained  of  the  origin  of  St. 
Mark's  Gospel. 

Historical  pictures  from  the  legendary  life  of  St.  Mark 
abound  in  the  Venetian  school,  but  are  not  often  found  out  of 
Venice. 

St.  Mark  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Alexandria,  by  Gentil 
Bellini,  a  very  large  composition  with  numerous  figures,  is  on 
many  accounts  extremely  curious.  The  painter,  who  had 
been  at  Constantinople,  transferred  to  Alexandria  the  Oriental 
scenery  and  costume  with  which  he  had  become  acquainted. 
The  church  of  St.  Euphemia  at  Alexandria,  in  the  background, 
has  the  air  of  a  Turkish  mosque ;  a  crowd  of  persons,  men  and 
women,  in  the  costume  of  the  Turks,  surround  the  Saint,  who 
is  standing  on  a  kind  of  pedestal  or  platform,  ascended  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  from  which  he  addresses  his  audience  with 
great  fervor.  Gentil  Bellini  painted  this  picture  for  the 
Scuola  di  San  Marco,  at  Venice.  [It  is  now  in  the]  Brera  at 
Milan. 

It  is  related  that  one  day  St.  Mark,  in  his  progress  through 
the  city  of  Alexandria,  saw  a  poor  cobbler,  who  had  wounded 
his  hand  severely  with  his  awl,  so  as  to  be  incapacitated  from 
gaining  his  bread :  St.  Mark  healed  the  wound  ;  and  the  cob- 
bler, whose  name  was  Anianus,  being  converted  and  properly 
instructed,  became  a  zealous  Christian,  and  succeeded  St.  Mark 
as  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  This  miraculous  cure  of  St.  Anianus 
and  his  subsequent  baptism  are  represented  in  two  pictures  by 
Mansueti.  [Painted  for  the  Scuola  di  San  Marco,  Venice,  and 
now  in  the  Venice  Academy.]  In  the  Berlin  Gallery  is  the 
cure  of  St.  Anianus,  by  Cima  da  Conegliano ;  a  large  composi- 
tion with  many  figures.  The  cure  and  baptism  of  St.  Anianus, 
represented  as  a  very  aged  man,  form  the  subjects  of  two  fine 
bas-reliefs  on  the  facade  of  the  School  of  St.  Mark,  by  Tullio 
Lombardo,  A.  D.  1502. 

1  [As  the  present  (1893)  catalogue  of  the  Venice  Academy  mentions  no 
picture  of  this  description  attributed  to  Bellini,  it  is  probable  that  the  refer- 
ence is  to  the  picture  catalogued  to  Lorenzo.] 

2  [The  Brera  catalogue  for  1892  contains  no  picture  of  this  description 
attributed  to  Bonvicino.] 


144  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

In  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Mark,  he  is  dragged  through  the 
streets  by  the  enraged  populace,  who  haul  him  along  by  a 
rope  ;  a  storm  from  above  overwhelms  the  idolaters.  The 
subject  is  thus  represented  by  Angelico  da  Fiesole  [in  the  pre- 
della  of  a  Madonna  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence]. 

A  famous  legend  of  St.  Mark,  which  has  been  the  subject 
of  several  pictures,  can  only  be  worthily  given  in  the  language 
of  the  old  Venetian  chronicle :  there  is  something  perfectly 
charming  in  the  picturesque  naivete  and  matter-of-fact  detail 
with  which  this  wild  and  wonderful  story  is  related ;  and  if 
you,  reader,  have  ever  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  Piazzetta  and 
looked  over  to  San  Giorgio,  or  San  Niccolo,  when  the  waves 
of  the  Lagune  were  foaming  and  driving  up  to  your  feet,  and 
storm-clouds  stooping  and  lowering  seemed  to  touch  the  very 
domes  and  campanile  around,  then  you  will  have  the  whole 
scene  as  a  reality  before  you. 

"  On  the  25th  of  February,  1340,  there  fell  out  a  wonder- 
ful thing  in  this  land ;  for  during  three  days  the  waters  rose 
continually,  and  in  the  night  there  was  fearful  rain  and  tem- 
pest, such  as  had  never  been  heard  of.  So  great  was  the 
storm  that  the  waters  rose  three  cubits  higher  than  had  ever 
been  known  in  Venice ;  and  an  old  fisherman  being  in  his 
little  boat  in  the  canal  of  St.  Mark,  reached  with  difficulty 
the  Riva  di  San  Marco,  and  there  he  fastened  his  boat  and 
waited  the  ceasing  of  the  storm.  And  it  is  related  that,  at 
the  time  this  storm  was  at  the  highest,  there  came  an  unknown 
man,  and  besought  him  that  he  would  row  him  over  to  San 
Giorgio  Maggiore,  promising  to  pay  him  well ;  and  the  fisher- 
man replied,  '  How  is  it  possible  to  go  to  San  Giorgio  ?  we 
shall* sink  by  the  way!  '  But  the  man  only  besought  him  the 
more  that  he  should  set  forth.  So,  seeing  that  it  was  the  will 
of  God,  he  arose  and  rowed  over  to  San  Giorgio  Maggiore  ; 
and  the  man  landed  there,  and  desired  the  boatman  to  wait. 
In  a  short  while  he  returned  with  a  young  man ;  and  they 
said,  '  Now  row  towards  San  Niccolo  di  Lido.'  And  the  fish- 
erman said,  '  How  can  one  possibly  go  so  far  with  one  oar  ? ' 
And  they  said,  l  Row  boldly,  for  it  shall  be  possible  to  thee, 
and  thou  shalt  be  well  paid.'  And  he  went ;  and  it  appeared 
to  him  as  if  the  waters  were  smooth.  Being  arrived  at  San 
Niccolo  di  Lido,  the  two  men  landed,  and  returned  with  a 


ST.   MAKK  145 

third,  and,  having  entered  into  the  boat,  they  commanded  the 
fisherman  that  he  should  row  beyond  the  two  castles.  And 
the  tempest  raged  continually.  Being  come  to  the  open  sea, 
they  beheld  approaching,  with  such  terrific  speed  that  it  ap- 
peared to  fly  over  the  waters,  an  enormous  galley  full  of  de- 
mons (as  it  is  written  in  the  Chronicles,  and  Marco  Sabellino 
also  makes  mention  of  this  miracle)  :  the  said  bark  approached 
the  castles  to  overwhelm  Venice,  and  to  destroy  it  utterly  ; 
anon  the  sea,  which  had  hitherto  been  tumultuous,  became 
calm ;  and  these  three  men,  having  made  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  exorcised  the  demons,  and  commanded  them  to  depart, 
and  immediately  the  galley  or  the  ship  vanished.  Then  these 
three  men  commanded  the  fisherman  to  land  them,  the  one  at 
San  Niccolo  di  Lido,  the  other  at  San  Giorgio  Maggiore,  and 
the  third  at  San  Marco.  And  when  he  had  landed  the  third, 
the  fisherman,  notwithstanding  the  miracle  he  had  witnessed, 
desired  that  he  would  pay  him ;  and  he  replied,  '  Thou  art 
right ;  go  now  to  the  Doge,  and  to  the  Procuratori  of  St. 
Mark,  and  tell  them  what  thou  hast  seen,  for  Venice  would 
have  been  overwhelmed  had  it  not  been  for  us  three.  I  am 
St.  Mark  the  Evangelist,  the  protector  of  this  city ;  the  other 
is  the  brave  knight  St.  George ;  and  he  whom  thou  didst  take 
up  at  the  Lido  is  the  holy  bishop  St.  Nicholas.  Say  to  the 
Doge  and  to  the  Procuratori  l  that  they  are  to  pay  you ;  and 
tell  them  likewise  that  this  tempest  arose  because  of  a  certain 
schoolmaster  dwelling  at  San  Felice,  who  did  sell  his  soul  to 
the  devil  and  afterwards  hanged  himself.'  And  the  fisherman 
replied,  '  If  I  should  tell  them  this,  they  would  not  believe 
me.'  Then  St.  Mark  took  off  a  ring  which  was  on  his  finger, 
which  ring  was  worth  five  ducats ;  and  he  said,  '  Show  them 
this,  and  tell  them  when  they  look  in  the  sanctuary  they  will 
not  find  it ;  '  and  thereupon  he  disappeared.  The  next  morn- 
ing the  said  fisherman  presented  himself  before  the  Doge  and 
related  all  he  had  seen  the  night  before,  and  showed  him  the 
ring  for  a  sign.  And  the  Procuratori  having  sent  for  the 
ring,  and  sought  in  the  usual  place,  found  it  not ;  by  reason 
of  which  miracle  the  fisherman  was  paid,  and  a  solemn  pro- 
cession was  ordained,  giving  thanks  to  God,  and  to  the  relics 
of  the  three  holy  saints,  who  rest  in  our  land,  and  who  deliv- 
ered us  from  this  great  danger.  The  ring  was  given  to 

1  The  Procuratori  had  charge  of  the  church  and  the  treasury  of  St.  Mark. 


146  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

Signer  Marco  Loredano  and  to  Signor  Andrea  Dandolo  the 
Procurator!,  who  placed  it  in  the  sanctuary ;  and,  moreover, 
a  perpetual  provision  was  made  for  the  aged  fisherman  above 
mentioned."  (Sanuto,  Vite  de'  Duci  Verieti.) 

This  legend  is  the  subject  of  two  celebrated  pictures :  The 
first,  attributed  to  Giorgione  (Acad.  Venice),  represents  the 
storm.1  A  ship,  manned  by  demons,  is  seen  towering  over 
the  waves :  the  demons  appear  to  be  seized  with  consternation ; 
some  fling  themselves  headlong  over  the  side  of  their  vessel, 
others  are  clinging  to  the  rigging,  others  sit  on  the  masts, 
which  flame  with  fire,  and  the  glare  is  seen  over  the  murky 
sky  and  sea.  More  in  front  are  two  barks,  one  towed  by  four 
satyr-like  demons,  splendid  figures  admirably  painted,  literally 
glowing  as  if  they  were  red-hot,  and  full  of  fierce  animation. 
In  the  other  bark  are  seen  the  three  saints,  St.  Mark,  St. 
Nicholas,  and  St.  George,  rowed  by  the  fisherman ;  sea-mon- 
sters are  sporting  amid  the  waves,  demons  bestride  them  ;  the 
city  of  Venice  is  just  visible  in  the  far-off  distance.  The 
whole  picture  is  full  of  vigor  and  poetic  feeling ;  the  fiery 
glow  of  color  and  the  romantic  style  of  Giorgione  suited  the 
subject ;  and  it  has  been  admirably  restored. 

The  second  picture  is  by  Paris  Bordone  (Venice  Academy), 
and  represents  the  fisherman  presenting  the  miraculous  ring  of 
St.  Mark  to  the  Doge  Gradenigo.  It  is  like  a  grand  piece  of 
scenic  decoration ;  we  have  before  us  a  magnificent  marble 
hall,  with  columns  and  buildings  in  perspective ;  to  the  right, 
on  the  summit  of  a  flight  of  steps,  sits  the  Doge  in  council ; 
the  poor  fisherman,  ascending  the  steps,  holds  forth  the  ring. 
The  numerous  figures,  the  vivid  color,  the  luxuriant  architec- 
ture, remind  us  of  Paul  Veronese,  with,  however,  more  deli- 
cacy, both  in  color  and  execution. 

A  Christian  slave,  in  the  service  of  a  certain  nobleman  of 
Provence,  disobeyed  the  commands  of  his  lord,  and  persisted 
in  paying  his  devotions  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Mark,  which  was 
at  some  distance.  On  his  return  home,  he  was  condemned  to 
the  torture.  As  it  was  about  to  be  yiflicted,  the  saint  himself 
descended  from  heaven  to  aid  his  votary ;  the  instruments  of 


i 


[In  the  opinion  of  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  and  other  critics,  this  picture 
was  entirely  repainted  by  Paris  Bordone,  and  has  been  subjected  to  many 
later  restorations.] 


ST.   LUKE  147 

torture  were  broken  or  blunted,  the  oppressor  and  his  execution- 
ers confounded.  This  legend  is  the  subject  of  a  celebrated  pic- 
ture by  Tintoretto  (Acad.  Venice),  of  which  Mr.  Kogers  had  the 
original  sketch.1  The  slave  lies  on  the  ground  amid  a  crowd  of 
spectators,  who  look  on,  animated  by  all  the  various  emotions 
of  sympathy,  rage,  terror  ;  a  woman  in  front,  with  a  child  in  her 
arms,  has  always  been  admired  for  the  lifelike  vivacity  of  her 
attitude  and  expression.  The  executioner  holds  up  the  broken 
implements  ;  St.  Mark,  with  a  headlong  movement,  seems  to 
rush  down  from  heaven  in  haste  to  save  his  worshipper ;  the 
dramatic  grouping  in  this  picture  is  wonderful ;  the  coloring, 
in  its  gorgeous  depth  and  harmony,  is  finer  in  the  sketch  than 
in  the  picture. 

In  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  we  find  the  whole  history  of  St. 
Mark  on  the  vault  of  the  Cappella  Zen  (opening  from  the  Bap- 
tistery), in  a  series  of  very  curious  mosaics  of  the  twelfth 
century.  The  translation  of  the  body  of  St.  Mark,  the  carry- 
ing off  the  relics  from  Alexandria,  their  arrival  in  Venice,  the 
grand  religious  ceremonies  which  took  place  on  their  arrival ; 
are,  also  represented  in  the  mosaics  over  the  portico  of  St. 
Mark's,  executed  chiefly  between  1650  and  1680.  We  have 
the  same  legend  in  two  compositions  of  Tintoretto  (Venice, 
Ducal  Palace)  ;  in  the  first,  the  remains  of  St.  Mark  are  taken 
forcibly  from  the  tomb  by  the  Venetian  mariners  ;  in  the 
other,  they  are  borne  away  to  sea  in  a  night  storm,  while  in 
the  air  is  seen  hovering  a  bright  transparent  form,  —  the  soul 
of  the  saint  flitting  with  his  body  to  Venice. 


ST.  LUKE 
Lat.  Sanctus  Luca.     Ital.  San  Luca.     Fr.  Saint  Luc.     (Oct.  18.) 

Of  the  real  history  of  St.  Luke  we  know  very  little.  He 
was  not  an  apostle  ;  and,  like  St.  Mark,  appears  to  have  been 
converted  after  the  ascension.  He  was  a  beloved  disciple 
of  St.  Paul,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Rome,  and  remained 
with  his  master  and  teacher  till  the  last.  It  is  related  that, 
after  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  he  preached 

1  [This  sketch  was  bought  by  the  Baroness  Burdett-Contts.     Vide  Redforift 
Salts,  vol.  i.  p.  151,  and  vol.  ii.  p.  255.] 


148  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

the  Gospel  in  Greece  and  Egypt ;  but  whether  he  died  a  nat- 
ural death,  or  suffered  martyrdom,  does  not  seem  clear.  The 
Greek  traditions  represent  him  as  dying  in  peace,  and  his 
death  was  thus  figured  on  the  ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo 
at  Rome.  Others  affirm  that  he  was  crucified  at  Patras  with 
St.  Andrew.  • 

There  is  some  ground  for  the  supposition  that  Luke  was  a 
physician,  (Col.  iv.  14.)  But  the  pretty  legend  which  makes 
him  a  painter,  and  represents  him  as  painting  the  portrait  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  is  unsupported  by  any  of  the  earlier  tradi- 
tions. It  is  of  Greek  origin,  still  universally  received  by  the 
Greek  Church,  which  considers  painting  a  religious  art,  and 
numbers  in  its  calendar  of  saints  a  long  list  of  painters,  as 
well  as  poets,  musicians,  and  physicians.  "Les  Grecs,"  says 
Didron,  "  semblent  avoir  canonise*  des  chre'tiens  uniquement 
parce  qu'ils  s'occupaient  de  soulager  le  corps  ou  de  charmer 
1'esprit."  In  the  west  of  Europe,  the  legend  which  represents 
St.  Luke  as  a  painter  can  be  traced  no  higher  than  the  tenth 
century ;  the  Greek  painters  introduced  it ;  and  a  rude  draw- 
ing of  the  Virgin  discovered  in  the  Catacombs,  with  an  in- 
scription purporting  that  it  was  "  one  of  seven  painted  by 
Luca,"  confirmed  the  popular  belief  that  St.  Luke  the  Evan- 
gelist was  meant.  Thus  originated  the  fame  of  innumerable 
Virgins  of  peculiar  sanctity,  all  attributed  to  his  hand,  and 
regarded  with  extreme  veneration.  Such  ancient  pictures  are 
generally  of  Greek  workmanship,  and  of  a  black  complexion.1 
In  the  legend  of  St.  Luke  we  are  assured  that  he  carried  with 
him  everywhere  two  portraits,  painted  by  himself ;  one  of  our 
Saviour,  and  one  of  the  Virgin  ;  and  that  by  means  of  these 
he  converted  many  of  the  heathen,  for  not  only  did  they  per- 

i  The  little  black  virgin  of  the  Monte  della  Guarclia,  near  Bologna,  I  saw- 
carried  in  grand  procession  through  the  streets  of  that  city,  in  May,  1847. 
The  following  inscription  is  engraved  on  a  tablet  in  the  church  of  San  Do- 
menico  and  San  Sisto  at  Rome:  "Here  at  the  high  altar  is  preserved  that 
image  of  the  most  blessed  Mary,  which,  being  delineated  by  St.  Luke  the  Evan- 
gelist, received  its  colors  and  form  divinely.  This  is  that  image  with  which 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  (according  to  St.  Antonine),  as  a  suppliant,  purified 
Rome;  and  the  pestilence  being  dispelled,  the  angel  messenger  of  peace, 
from  the  summit  of  the  castle  of  Adrian,  commanding  the  Queen  of  Heaven 
to  rejoice,  restored  health  to  the  city."  A  Virgin  in  the  Ara  Cceli  pretends  to 
the  same  honor;  both  these  are  black  and  ugh',  while  that  in  the  S.  Maria  in 
(.'osmedino  is  of  uncommon  dignity  and  beauty.  See  Legends  of  the  Ma- 
donna. 


ST.  LUKE  149 

form  great  miracles,  but  all  who  looked  on  these  bright  and 
benign  faces,  which  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  each  other, 
were  moved  to  admiration  and  devotion.  It  is  also  said  that 
St.  Luke  painted  many  portraits  of  the  Virgin,  delighting 
himself  by  repeating  this  gracious  image ;  and  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Via  Lata,  at  Rome,  they  still  show  a  little 
chapel  in  which,  "  as  it  hath  been  handed  down  from  the  first 
ages,  St.  Luke  the  Evangelist  wrote,  and  painted  the  effigy  of 
the  Virgin  Mother  of  God." 

On  the  strength  of  this  tradition,  St.  Luke  has  been  chosen 
as  the  patron  saint  of  painters.  Academies  of  art  are  placed 
under  his  particular  protection  ;  their  chapels  are  dedicated  to 
him,  and  over  the  altar  we  see  him  in  his  charming  and  pious 
avocation,  that  of  painting  portraits  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  for 
the  consolation  of  the  faithful. 

The  devotional  figures  of  St.  Luke,  in  his  character  of  evan- 
gelist, represent  him  in  general  with  his  Gospel  and  his  at- 
tendant ox,  winged  or  unwinged,  as  already  described :  but  in 
Greek  Art,  and  in  those  schools  of  Art  which  have  been 
particularly  under  the  Byzantine  influence  (as  the  early  Vene- 
tian), we  see  St.  Luke  as  evangelist  young  and  beardless,  hold- 
ing the  portrait  of  the  Virgin  as  his  attribute  in  one  hand  and 
his  Gospel  in  the  other.  A  beautiful  figure  of  St.  Luke  as 
evangelist  and  painter  is  in  the  famous  "  Heures  d'Anne  de 
Bretagne."  (MS.,  A.  D.  1500.  Paris,  Bib.  Imp.) 

In  an  engraving  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden,  executed  as  it  should 
seem  in  honor  of  his  patron  saint,  St.  Luke  is  seated  on  the 
back  of  his  ox  writing  the  Gospel ;  he  wears  a  hood  like  an 
old  professor,  rests  his  book  against  the  horns  of  the  animal, 
and  his  inkstand  is  suspended  on  the  bough  of  a  tree.  But 
separate  devotional  figures  of  him  as  patron  are  as  rare  as  those 
of  St.  Matthew. 

St.  Luke  painting  the  Virgin  has  been  a  frequent  and  favor- 
ite subject.  The  most  famous  of  all  is  a  picture  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  St.  Luke,  at  Rome,  [once]  ascribed  to  Raphael  [but  now 
attributed  to  Timoteo  Viti.  Vide  Muntz,  Raphael,  chapter 
xvi.].  Here  St.  Luke,  kneeling  on  a  footstool  before  an  easel, 
is  busied  painting  the  Virgin  with  the  Child  in  her  arms,  who 
appears  to  him  out  of  heaven  sustained  by  clouds  :  behind  St. 
Luke  stands  Raphael  himself,  looking  on.  Another  of  the 
same  subject,  a  very  small  and  beautiful  picture,  also  ascribed 


150  THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

to  Raphael,1  is  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  [London].  In  neither 
of  these  pictures  is  the  treatment  quite  worthy  of  that  great 
painter,  wanting  his  delicacy  hoth  of  sentiment  and  execution. 
There  is  a  most  curious  and  quaint  example  in  the  Munich 
Gallery,  attributed  to  Van  Eyck  ; 2  here  the  Virgin,  seated 
under  a  rich  Gothic  canopy,  holds  on  her  lap  the  Infant  Christ, 
in  a  most  stiff  attitude ;  St.  Luke,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  is 
taking  her  likeness.  There  is  another,  similar  in  style,  hy 
Aldegraef,  in  the  Vienna  Gallery.3  Carlo  Maratti  represents 
St.  Luke  as  presenting  to  the  Virgin  the  picture  he  has  painted 
of  her.  St.  Luke  painting  the  Madonna  and  Child,  while  an 
angel  is  grinding  his  colors,  I  remember  in  the  Aguado  Gal- 
lery ; 4  a  late  Spanish  picture  by  F.  Kizi,  A.  D.  1660. 


ST.  JOHN 

Lat.  Sanctus  Johannes.  Gr.  St.  John  Theologos,  or  the  Divine. 
Ital.  San  Giovanni  Evangelista.  Fr.  Saint  Jean ;  Messire  Saint' 
Jehan.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Johann.  (Dec.  27,  A.  D.  99.) 

Of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke  so  little  is  certainly 
known,  that  we  have  no  data  on  which  to  found  an  individual 
portrait ;  therefore  any  representation  of  them  as  venerable 
and  inspired  teachers  suffices  to  the  fancy :  .but  it  is  quite 
otherwise  with  St.  John,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  evan- 
gelists, and  the  most  beloved  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord.  Of 
him  sufficient  is  known  to  convey  a  distinct  impression  of  his 
personal  character,  and  an  idea  of  what  his  personal  appear- 
ance may  have  been,  supposing  this  outward  semblance  to  have 
harmonized  with  the  inward  being. 

He  was  the  son  of  the  fisherman  Zebedee,  and,  with  his 
brother  James,  among  the  first  followers  of  the  Saviour.  He 
is  emphatically  called  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved ;  "  a 

preference  which  he  merited,  not  only  from  the  extreme  purity 

• 

1  [Now  catalogued  to  Giulio  Romano.] 

2  [Attributed  in  the  Munich  catalogue  of  1894  to  Roger  Van  der  Weyden. 
A  similar  painting  by  Van  der  Weyden  is  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
purchased  from  the  Due  de  Durcal  sale.] 

3  [Reference  is  probabty  to  the  picture  attributed  to  Mabuse  in  the  Belve- 
dere catalogue  of  1892.] 

4  [The  Aguado  Gallery  was  the  private  collection  of  paintings  owned  by 
the  Marquis  of  Guadalqniver  of  Paris,  who  died  in  1842.] 


ST.   JOHN  151 

of  his  life  and  character,  but  from  his  devoted  and  affectionate 
nature.  He  appears  to  have  been  at  all  times  the  constant 
companion  of  his  divine  Lord  ;  and  his  life,  while  the  Saviour 
was  on  earth,  inseparable  from  His.  In  all  the  memora- 
ble circumstances  recorded  in  the  Gospel  he  was  a  party,  or  at 
least  present.  He  witnessed  the  glory  of  the  transfiguration ; 
he  leaned  on  the  bosom  of  Jesus  at  the  Last  Supper  ;  he  stood 
by  the  cross  in  the  hour  of  agony  ;  he  laid  the  body  of  his 
crucified  Master  in  the  sepulchre.  After  the  death  of  the 
Virgin  Mother,  who  had  been  confided  to  his  care,  he  went 
about  Judaea,  preaching  the  Gospel  with  St.  Peter.  He  then 
travelled  into  Asia  Minor,  where  he  founded  the  Seven 
Churches,  and  resided  principally  at  Ephesus.  During  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Domitian,  St.  John  was 
sent  in  fetters  to  Rome ;  and,  according  to  a  tradition  gener- 
ally received  in  the  Roman  Church,  he  was  cast  into  a  caldron 
of  boiling  oil,  but  was  miraculously  preserved,  and  "  came  out 
of  it  as  out  of  a  refreshing  bath."  He  was  then  accused  of 
magic,  and  exiled  to  the  island  of  Patmos,  in  the  ^Egean  Sea, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  written  his  Revelation.  After  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Domitian  he  was  released,  and  returned 
to  his  church  at  Ephesus ;  and  for  the  use  of  the  Christians 
there  he  is  said  to  have  written  his  Gospel,  at  the  age  of  ninety. 
A  few  years  afterwards  he  died  in  that  city,  being  nearly  a 
century  old.  All  the  incidents  here  touched  upon  occur  fre- 
quently as  subjects  of  Art,  but  most  of  them  belong  properly  to 
the  life  of  Christ. 

The  personal  character  of  St.  John,  at  once  attractive  and 
picturesque,  has  rendered  him  popular  as  a  patron  saint,  and 
devotional  pictures  of  him  are  far  more  numerous  than  of  any 
of  the  other  evarfgelists. 

He  is  represented  in  one  of  his  three  characters :  1,  as  evan- 
gelist ;  2,  as  apostle  ;  3,  as  prophet ;  or  the  three  are  com- 
bined in  one  figure. 

1.  Of  the  early  eagle  symbol,  I  have  spoken  at  length. 

In  Greek  Art,  whether  as  apostle  or  evangelist,  St.  John  is 
always  an  aged  man  with  white  hair,  and  a  venerable  beard 
descending  to  his  breast ;  and  by  the  earlier  Latin  painters, 
where  he  figures  as  evangelist  only,  not  as  apostle,  this  type 
has  been  adhered  to  ;  but  the  later  painters  set  it  aside,  and 


152 


THE  FOUK   EVANGELISTS 


St.  John  the  Evangelist,  nearly  a  century  old,  has  all  the  attri- 
butes of  the  youthful  apostle.  He  is  beardless,  with  light 
curling  hair,  and  eyes  gazing  upwards  in  a  rapture  of  inspira- 
tion :  he  is  sometimes  seated  with  his  pen  and  his  book,  some- 
times standing  ;  the  attendant  eagle  always  near  him,  and  fre- 
quently holding  the  pen  or  inkhorn  in  his  beak. 

In  some  of  the  old  prints  and  pictures,  which  represent  St. 
John  as  writing  the  Gospel,  his  eyes  are  turned  on  the  Virgin 
with  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms,  who  appear  as  a  vision  in 

the  skies  above  ;  underneath, 
or  on  his  book,  is  inscribed, 
"  The  Word  was  made  flesh," 
or  some  other  text  of  the  same 
import.  The  eagle  at  his  side 
has  sometimes  the  nimbus  or 
a  crown  of  stars  (as  in  the 
Missal  of  Henry  VIII.  Bod- 
leian, Oxford),  and  is  then 
perhaps  intended  to  figure 
the  Holy  Ghost. 

I  remember  an  instance  in 
which  the  devil,  intent  on 
intercepting  the  message  of 
reconcilement  and  "  goodwill 
towards  men,"  which  was  de- 
stined to  destroy  his  empire 
on  earth,  appears  behind  St. 
John,  arid  is  oversetting  the 
ink  upon  the  pages  ;  another, 
in  which  he  is  stealing  away 
the  inkhorn. 

2.  As  one  of  the  series  of 
apostles,  St.  John  is  always, 
in  Western  Art,  young,  or  in 
the  prime  of  life,  with  little 
or  no  beard,  flowing  or  curl- 
ing hair,  generally  of  a  pale 
brown  or  golden  hue.  to  express  the  delicacy  of  his  nature ; 
and  in  his  countenance  an  expression  of  benignity  and  candor. 
His  drapery  is,  or  ought  to  be,  red,  with  a  blue  or  green  tunic. 
He  bears  in  his  hand  the  sacramental  cup,  from  which  a  serpent 


St.  John  (Lucas  van  Leyden) 


ST.   JOHN 


153 


is  seen  to  issue.  St.  Isidore  relates  that,  at  Rome,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  poison  St.  John  in  the  cup  of  the  sacrament ;  he 
drank  of  the  same,  and  administered  it  to  the  communicants 
without  injury,  the  poison  having  by  a  miracle  issued  from  the 
cup  in  the  form  of  a 
serpent,  while  the  hired 
assassin  fell  down  dead 
at  his  feet.  According 
to  another  version  of 
this  story,  the  poisoned 
cup  was  administered  by 
order  of  the  Emperor 
Domitian.  According  to 
a  third  version,  Aristo- 
demus,  the  high  priest 
of  Diana,  at  Ephesus, 
defied  him  to  drink  of 
the  poisoned  chalice,  as 
a  test  of  the  truth  of 
his  mission  ;  St.  John 
drank  unharmed,  —  the 
priest  fell  dead.  Others 
say,  and  this  seems  the 
more  probable  interpre- 
tation, that  the  cup  in 
the  hand  of  St.  John  al- 
ludes to  the  reply  given 
by  our  Saviour,  when  the 
mother  of  James  and 
John  requested  for  her 

sons  the  place  of  honor  in  heaven,  —  "  Ye  shall  drink  indeed 
of  my  cup."  As  in  other  instances,  the  legend  was  invented 
to  explain  the  symbol.  When  the  cup  has  the  consecrated 
wafer  instead  of  the  serpent,  it  signifies  the  institution  of  the 
Eucharist. 

Some  of  the  old  German  representations  of  St.  John  are 
of  singular  beauty  :  for  example,  one  by  Hans  Memling,  one 
by  Yon  Melem,1  standing  figures ;  simple,  graceful,  majestic ; 
in  the  prime  of  youth,  with  a  charming  expression  of  devotion 
in  the  heads :  both  hold  the  sacramental  cup  with  the  ser- 
i  Both  among  the  fine  lithographs  of  the  Boissere'e  Gallery. 


St.  John  (Raphael) 


154  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

t 
pent ;  no  eagle ;  therefore  St.  John  is  here  to  be  considered 

as  the  apostle  only  ;  when,  with  the  cup,  the  eagle  is  placed 
by  his  side,  he  is  represented  in  the  double  character  of  apostle 
and  evangelist. 

In  the  early  Siena  school,  and  in  some  old  illuminations, 
I  have  seen  St.  John  carrying  in  his  hand  a  radiant  circle, 
inscribed  "In  primo  est  verbum,"  and  within  the  circle  an 
eagle  with  outspread  wings :  but  this  is  uncommon. 

3.  St.  John  as  the  prophet,  the  .writer  of  the  Revelation,  is 
usually  an  aged  man,  with  a  white  flowing  beard,  seated  in  a 
rocky  desert ;  the  sea  in  the  distance,  or  flowing  round  him,  to 
represent  the  island  of  Patmos ;  the  eagle  at  his  side.  In  the 
old  frescoes,  and  the  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  Apocalypse,  this 
is  the  usual  representation. 

Some  examples  of  the  ideal  and  devotional  figures  of  St. 
John  as  evangelist  and  prophet  will  give  an  idea  of  the  variety 
of  treatment  in  this  favorite  subject :  — 

1.  Ancient  Greejc.      St.  John,  with  the  head  of  an  eagle 
and  large  wings,  the  figure  fully  draped,  is  soaring  upwards. 
In    such   representations    the  inscription  is   usually    "  Quasi 
aquila  ascendet  et  avolabit "  ("  Behold,  he  shall  come  up  and 
fly  as  the  eagle."     Jer.  xlix.  22). 

2.  Perugino.      St.  John  as  an  aged   man,  with  long  gray 
beard  and  flowing  hair,  attended  by  a  black  eagle,  looking  up 
at  the  Madonna  in  glory.      (Academy,  Bologna.1) 

3.  Raphael  (?).     St.  John,  young  and  beautiful,  mounted 
on  the  back  of  an  eagle,  and  soaring  heavenwards ;    in  one 
hand  he   holds  a  tablet,  in   the  other  a  pen ;    sea  and  land 
below.       This  treatment,  which  recalls  the   antique  Jupiter 
bestriding  his  eagle,  appears  to  me  at  once  too  theatrical  and 
too  commonplace  for  Raphael.      (Mustfe,  Marseilles.) 

4.  Correggio.      St.    John   seated   writing  his   Gospel ;    the 
eagle   at  his  feet   is   pluming  his   wing ;    inscribed   "  Altius 
cceteris  Dei  patefecit  arcana."     [A  lunette  in  the  church  of 
S.  Giovanni  Evangelista,]  Parma;   wonderfully  beautiful. 

1  [The  Bologna  catalogue  contains  no  picture  of  this  description  attributed 
to  Perugino.] 


ST.   JOHN  155 

5.  Domenichino.  St.  John,  full  length,  life  size ;  young 
and  beautiful,  in  an  ecstasy  of  inspiration,  and  sustained  by 
two  angels ;  the  eagle  at  his  feet ;  formerly  in  the  Giustiniani 
Gallery  ;  finer,  I  think,  than  the  St.  John  in  Sant'  Andrea. 
(Leigh  Court,  Gallery  of  Mr.  Miles.)  Another,  half  length,  a 
scroll  in  his  hand,  looking  upwards  as  one  to  whom  the  glory 
of  the  heavens  had  been  opened,  —  you  see  it  reflected  in  his 
eyes,  while  love,  wonder,  devotion,  beam  from  his  beautiful 
face  and  parted  lips ;  behind  him  hovers  the  attendant  eagle, 
holding  the  pen  in  his  beak ;  near  him  is  the  chalice,  with 
the  serpent ;  so  that  here  he  is  in  his  double  character  of  apos- 
tle and  evangelist.  (Petersburg,  Gallery  of  Prince  Narishken. 
Bng.  '  by  Mliller.)  Domenichino  excelled  in  St.  Johns,  as 
Guido  in  Magdalenes ;  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  is 
that  in  the  Brera,  at  Milan,  where  St.  John  bends  on  one 
knee  at  the  foot  of  the  throne  of  the  Madonna  and  Child,  his 
pen  in  one  hand,  the  other  pressed  to  his  bosom,  and  looking 
up  to  them  with  an  air  of  ecstatic  inspiration.  Two  little 
angels,  or  rather  amoretti,  are  in  attendance :  one  has  his 
arms  round  the  neck  of  the  eagle,  sporting  with  it ;  the  other 
holds  up  the  cup  and  the  serpent.  Every  detail  is  composed 
and  painted  to  admiration ;  but  this  is  the  artistic  and  pictur- 
esque, not  the  religious,  version  of  the  subject. 

St.  John  is  frequently  represented  with  St.  Peter,  because, 
after  the  ascension,  they  taught  and  acted  in  concert.  In 
such  pictures,  the  contrast  between  the  fiery  resolve  and 
sturdy,  rugged  grandeur  which  is  given  to  St.  Peter,  and  the 
refinement,  mildness,  and  personal  grace  of  St.  John,  pro- 
duces a  fine  effect :  as  in  Albert  Diirer's  picture  (Munich), 
where  John  is  holding  open  the  Gospel,  and  Peter  apparently 
reading  it ;  two  grand  and  simple  figures,  filling  the  mind  as 
we  gaze  upon  them.  As  this  picture  was  painted  after  Albert 
Dlirer  became  a  Protestant,  I  have  thought  it  possible  that  he 
might  have  had  some  particular  meaning  in  thus  making  Peter 
study  the  Gospel  of  John.  At  all  events,  Albert  Diirer  was 
quite  capable  of  such  an  intention  ;  and,  whether  intended  or 
not,  the  picture  may  be,  and  has  been,  thus  interpreted.  The 
prophets  and  the  poets  often  say  more  than  they  intended,  for 
their  light  was  for  others  more  than  for  themselves :  so  also 
the  great  painters  —  the  Raphaels  and  Albert  Diirers  —  proph- 
ets and  poets  in  their  way.  When  I  have  heard  certain  critics 


156  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

ridiculed  because  they  found  more  in  the  productions  of  a 
Shakespeare  or  a  Raphael  than  the  poet  or  painter  himself  ever 
perceived  or  "  intended,"  such  ridicule  has  appeared  to  me  in 
the  highest  degree  presumptuous  and  absurd.  The  true  artist 
"  feels  that  he  is  greater  than  he  knows."  In  giving  form  or 
utterance  to  the  soul  within  him,  does  he  account  to  himself 
for  all  the  world  of  thoughts  his  work  will  excite  in  the  minds 
of  others  ?  Is  its  significance  to  be  circumscribed  either  by 
the  intention  and  the  knowledge  of  the  poet,  or  the  compre- 
hension of  the  age  in  which  he  lived  ?  That  is  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  second-rate,  self-conscious  poets  or  painters, 
whom  we  read  or  study  because  they  reflect  to  us  a  particular 
meaning,  a  particular  period,  —  but  not  of  the  Homers  and 
Shakespeares,  the  Raphaels  and  Albert  DUrers ;  they  speak 
to  all  times,  to  all  men,  with  a  suggestive  significance,  widen- 
ing, deepening  with  every  successive  generation ;  and  to  meas- 
ure their  depth  of  meaning  by  their  own  intention,  or  by  the 
comprehension  of  their  own  or  any  one  generation,  what  is  it 
but  to  measure  the  star  of  heaven  by  its  apparent  magnitude  ? 
An  inch  rule  will  do  that ! 

But  to  return  from  this  digression.  In  devotional  pictures 
we  often  see  St.  John  the  Evangelist  and  St.  John  the  Baptist 
standing  together ;  or  on  each  side  of  Christ,  or  of  the  Ma- 
donna and  Child.  There  is  a  peculiar  propriety  and  signifi- 
cance in  this  companionship :  both  are,  then,  to  be  considered 
as  prophets ;  they  were,  besides,  kinsmen,  and  bore  the  same 
name ;  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  was  the  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist  before  he  was  called  by  Christ.  Here,  again,  the 
contrast  between  the  dark,  emaciated,  hairy  prophet  of  the 
wilderness  and  the  graceful  dignity  of  the  youthful  apostle 
has  a  striking  effect.  An  example  at  hand  is  the  bronze  bas- 
relief  on  the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  (Westminster  Abbey.) 
Madonna  pictures,  in  which  the  two  St.  Johns  stand  before 
her  throne,  occur  frequently.  I  remember,  also,  a  marble 
group  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  in  which  the  two  St.  Johns,  as 
infants,  are  playing  at  her  feet,  one  with  his  eagle,  the  other 
with  his  reed  cross.  (Rome,  S.  Maria-sopra-Minerva.) 

As  one  who  bore  the  most  direct  testimony  to  the  Incarna- 
tion, St.  John  is  often  introduced  into  Madonna  pictures  and 
pictures  of  the  Nativity  ;  but  in  the  later  schools  only.  In 
these  instances  he  points  significantly  to  the  Child,  and  the 


ST.    JOHN  157 

sacramental  cup  and  wafer  is  either  in  his  hand  or  at  his  feet, 
or  borne  by  an  angel. 

The  historical  and  dramatic  subjects  in  which.  St.  John  fig- 
ures as  a  principal  personage  are  very  numerous.  As  the 
scriptural  scenes  belong  properly  to  the  life  of  Christ,  I  shall 
confine  myself  here  to  some  observations  on  the  manner  in 
which  St.  John  is  introduced  and  treated  in  such  pictures.  In 
general  he  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  other  apostles  by 
his  youth  and  beauty  and  flowing  hair,  and  by  being  placed 
nearest  to  Christ  as  the  most  beloved  of  His  disciples. 

"The  mother  of  James  and  John  imploring  from  our  Sa- 
viour the  highest  place  in  heaven  for  her  two  sons  "  (Matt. 
xx.  21)  :  a  picture  by  Bonifazio  [Veronese],  in  the  Borghese 
Gallery  [Rome],  beautiful  both  in  sentiment  and  color.  There 
is  another  example  by  Paul  Veronese ;  and  another,  by  Tin- 
toretto, was  in  the  Coesvelt  Gallery.  I  must  observe  that, 
except  in  Venetian  pictures,  I  have  not  met  with  this  incident 
as  a  separate  subject. 

In  the  Last  Supper,  Peter  is  generally  on  the  right  of  Christ, 
and  St.  John  on  the  left :  he  leans  his  head  down  on  the 
bosom  of  Christ  (this  is  always  the  attitude  in  the  oldest  pic- 
tures) ;  or  he  leans  towards  Christ,  who  places  Hi's  hand  upon 
his  shoulder,,  drawing  him  towards  Him  with  an  expression  of 
tenderness  :  this  is  the  action  in  the  fresco  [attributed  to]  Ra- 
phael, lately  discovered  at  Florence  [Sanf  Onofrio].  But  I 
must  reserve  the  full  consideration  of  this  subject  for  another 
place. 

"Where,  instead  of  the  Last  Supper,  our  Saviour  is  repre- 
sented as  administering  the  Eucharist,  St.  John  is  seen  on  His 
right  hand,  bearing  the  cup. 

In  the  Crucifixion,  when  treated  as  a  religious  rather  than 
an  historical  subject,  St.  John  stands  on  the  left  of  the  Cross, 
and  the  Virgin  on  the  right ;  both  in  attitudes  of  the  pro- 
foundest  grief  and  adoration  mingled.  In  general  the  motif 
of  this  sacred  subject  does  not  vary  ;  but  I  remember  exam- 
ples in  which  St.  John  is  seen  trampling  a  Jew  under  his 
feet ;  on  the  other  side  the  Virgin  tramples  on  a  veiled  woman, 
signifying  the  old  law,  the  synagogue,  as  opposed  to  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  of  which  the  Virgin  was  the  received  symbol. 

When  the  Crucifixion  is  a  scene  or  action,  not  a  mystery, 


Io8  THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

then  St.  John  is  beheld  afar  off,  with  the  women  who  followed 
their  divine  Master  to  Calvary. 

St.  John  and  the  Virgin  Mary  returning  from  the  Crucifix- 
ion :  he  appears  to  be  sustaining  her  slow  and  fainting  steps. 
I  have  only  once  met  with  this  beautiful  subject,  in  a  picture 
by  Zurbaran,  in  the  Munich  Gallery.1 

In  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  St.  John  is  a  chief  actor ;  he 
generally  sustains  the  head  of  the  Saviour,  and  is  distinguished 
by  an  expression  of  extreme  sorrow  and  tenderness.  In  the 
Entombment  he  is  sometimes  one  of  the  bearers,  sometimes 
he  follows  lamenting.  In  a  print  of  the  Entombment  after 
Andrea  Mantegna,  he  is  not  only  weeping  and  wringing  his 
hands  as  usual,  but  absolutely  crying  aloud  with  the  most  ex- 
aggerated expression  of  anguish.  In  pictures  of  the  Descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  St.  John  is  usually  a  conspicuous  figure, 
and  in  the  foreground.  In  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  he 
is  also  conspicuous,  generally  in  front,  as  the  pendant  to  St. 
Peter,  and  gazing  upwards  with  ecstatic  faith  and  devotion. 

Of  course  there  is  great  variety  in  these  representations  : 
the  later  painters  thought  less  of  individual  character  and  sig- 
nificant propriety  of  arrangement  than  of  artistic  grouping  ; 
therefore  the  above  remarks  have  reference  to  the  early  paint- 
ers only. 

In  the  scenes  talcen  from  the  Acts,  St.  John  is  always  in 
companionship  with  St.  Peter,  and  becomes  the  secondary 
figure. 

St.  John  writing  his  Revelation  in  the  island  of  Patmos  is 
a  subject  which  frequently  occurs  in  MSS.  of  the  Apocalypse, 
and  in  the  chapels  dedicated  to  St.  John.  The  motif  is  gen- 
erally the  same  in  all ;  we  have  a  desert  island,  with  the  sea 
in  the  distance,  or  flowing  round  it ;  St.  John,  seated  on  a 
rock  or  under  a  tree,  is  in  the  act  of  writing  ;  or  he  is  looking 
up  to  heaven,  where  the  "  Woman  crowned  with  stars,"  or 
"  the  Woman  fleeing  from  the  dragon,"  appears  as  in  his  vis- 
ion.2 (Rev.  xii;)  Or  he  beholds  St.  -Michael,  armed,  cast 
down  the  dragon  in  human  form ;  he  has  the  eagle  and  book, 
and  looks  up  at  the  Virgin  as  in  a  picture  by  Ambrogio  Figino 
(Brera,  Milan).  The  eagle  is  always  in  attendance  as  the 

1  [The  work  here  referred  to  is  probably  the  painting  catalogued  as  a  pro- 
duction of  Francisco  Ribalta.] 
-   Vide  Let/ends  of  the  Madonna. 


ST.  JOHN  159 

symbol  of  inspiration  in  a  general  sense ;  when  represented 
with  a  diadem,  or  glory,  as  in  some  very  early  examples,  it 
is  a  symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which,  among  the  Jews,  was 
figured  by  the  eagle. 

The  subjects  from  the  legendary  life  of  St.  John  are  exceed- 
ingly interesting,  but  they  are  not  easily  recognized,  and  require 
particular  attention ;  some  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  others 
rarely  met  with. 

1.  Israel  v.  Meckerien.     St.  John  Instructing  his  Disciples 
at  Ephesus.      (Acts  iv.  37.)     The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a 
Gothic  church,  the  windows  painted  with  heraldic  emblazon- 
ments ;   St.  John  is  seated  expounding  the  Scriptures,  and  five 
disciples  sit  opposite  to  him  with  coarse  ugly  faces,  but  most 
intense,  expressive  countenances  ;  in  the  background,  a  large 
chest  full  of  money. 

2.  Vatican,  Chr.  Mus.     St.  John  drinking  from  the  pois- 
oned chalice  ;  a  man  falls  down  dead  at  his  feet,  several  figures 
look  on  with  awe  and  astonishment :  this  is  a  frequent  subject 
in  the  elder  schools  of  Art,  and  in  the  illuminated  MSS.  of 
the  Gospel  and  Apocalypse :  but  I  have  never  met  with  a  rep- 
resentation later  than  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.1 

3.  It  is  related  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  that  when  St. 
John  was  at  Ephesus,  and  before  he  was  exiled  to  Patmos,  he 
had  taken  to  his  care  a  young  man  of  promising  qualities  of 
person  and  mind.     During  his  absence  he  left  him  under  the 
spiritual  guidance  of  a  certain  bishop  ;   but  after  a  while  the 
youth  took  to  evil  courses,  and,  proceeding  from  one  excess  to 
another,  he  at  length  became  the  leader  of  a  band  of  robbers 
and  assassins  who  struck  terror  into  the  whole  country.     When 
St.  John  returned  to  Ephesus,  he  went  to  the  bishop  and  de- 
manded "  the  precious  deposit  he  had  left  in  his  hands."     At 
first  the  priest  did  not  understand  him  ;  but  when  St.  John 
explained  the  allusion  to  his  adopted  son,  he  cast  down  his 
eyes  with  sorrow  and  shame,  and   told  of  what  had  befallen. 
Then  St.  John  rent  his  garments,  and  wept  with  a  loud  voice, 
and  cried  out,  "  Alas  !  alas  !  to  what  a  guardian  have  I  trusted 

1  We  find  among  the  relics  exhibited  on  great  occasions  in  the  church  of 
the  S.  Croce  at  Rome  "  the  cup  in  which  St.  John,  the  apostle  and  evangel- 
ist, by  command  of  Domitian  the  emperor,  drank  poison  without  receiving 
any  injury;  which  afterwards  being  tasted  by  his  attendants,  on  the  instant 
they  fell  dead." 


160  THE   FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

our  brother  !  "  And  he  called  for  a  horse  and  rode  towards 
the  forest  in  which  the  robbers  sojourned  ;  and  when  the  cap- 
tain of  the  robbers  beheld  his  old  master  and  instructor,  he 
turned  and  would  have  fled  from  his  presence  ;  but  St.  John, 
by  the  most  fervent  entreaties,  prevailed  on  him  to  stop  and 
listen  to  his  words.  After  some  conference,  the  robber,  utterly 
subdued,  burst  into  tears  of  penitence,  imploring  forgiveness ; 
and  while  he  spoke  he  hid  beneath  his  robe  his  right  hand, 
which  had  been  sullied  with  so  many  crimes ;  but  St.  John, 
falling  on  his  knees  before  him,  seized  that  blood-polluted 
hand  and  kissed  it  and  bathed  it  with  his  tears  ;  and  he  re- 
mained with  his  reconverted  brother  till  he  had,  by  prayers 
and  encouraging  words  and  affectionate  exhortations,  reconciled 
him  with  Heaven  and  with  himself. 

This  beautiful  legend  is  the  subject  of  some  old  engravings, 
in  which  St.  John  is  represented  embracing  the  robber,  who 
is  weeping  on  his  neck,  having  flung  away  his  weapons.  It 
has  been,  however,  too  rarely  treated  ;  I  have  never  met  with 
a  picture  of  the  subject ;  and  yet  it  abounds  in  picturesque 
capabilities ;  the  forest  background  —  the  contrast  of  youth  and 
age  —  bright  armor,  flowing  drapery,  and  the  most  striking 
and  affecting  moral,  are  here  all  combined. 

4.  Another  very   pretty  apologue  relating  to  St.  John   is 
sometimes  included  in  a  series  of  subjects  from  his  life.     Two 
young  men,  who  had  sold  all  their  possessions  to  follow  him, 
afterwards    repented.      He,    perceiving    their    thoughts,   sent 
them    to    gather    pebbles    and    fagots,  and,  on   their    return, 
changed  these  into  money  and  ingots  of  gold,  saying  to  them, 
"  Take   back  your  riches  and  enjoy  them   on  earth,  as   you 
regret  having  exchanged  them   for  heaven  ! "      This  story  is 
represented    on    one    of    the    windows    of    the    Cathedral  at 
Bourges.      The  two  young  men  stand  before  St.  John,  with  a 
heap  of  gold  on  one  side  and  a  heap  of  stones  and  fagots  on 
the  other. 

5.  When  St.  John  had  sojourned  in  the  island  of  Patmos  a 
year  and  a  day,  he  returned  to  his  church  at  Ephesus ;  and 
as  he  approached  the  city,  being  received  with  great  joy  by 
the  inhabitants,  lo  !  a  funeral  procession  came  forth  from  the 
gates  ;  and  of  those  who  followed  weeping  he  inquired  "  who 
was  dead?"     They  said,  "Drusiana."     Now  when  he  heard 
that  name  he  was  sad,  for  Drusiana   had  excelled  in  all  good 


ST.    JOHN  161 

» 

works,  and  he  had  formerly  dwelt  in  her  house  ;  and  he  ordered 
them  to  set  down  the  bier,  and  having  prayed  earnestly,  God 
was  pleased  to  restore  Drusiana  to  life ;  she  arose  up,  and  the 
apostle  went  home  with  her  and  dwelt  in  her  house. 

This  incident  is  the  subject  of  a  fine  fresco,  painted  [by 
Filippino  Lippi]  on  the  left  hand  wall  of  the  [Filippo] 
Strozzi  Chapel  [Santa  Maria  Novella]  at  Florence.  It  has 
the  forcible  expression  and  dramatic  spirit  of  the  painter,  with 
that  characteristic  want  of  elevated  feeling  in  the  counte- 
nances and  in  the  general  treatment  which  is  apparent  in  all  his 
works  ;  the  group  in  one  corner,  of  a  child  starting  from  a  dog, 
is  admired  for  its  truth ;  but,  by  disturbing  the  solemnity  of 
the  marvellous  scene,  it  repels  like  a  falsehood. 

6.  There  is  another  beautiful  and  picturesque  legend  relating 
to  St.  John,  of  which  I  have  never  seen  any  representation ; 
but  it  may  possibly  have  occasioned  the  frequent  introduction 
of   a  partridge   into  the  pictures   of   sacred  subjects,   particu- 
larly in   the   Venetian  School.       St.   John  had  a  tame   par- 
tridge, which  he  cherished    much  ;    and  he   amused  himself 
with    feeding  and   tending  it.      "A  certain  huntsman,  pass- 
ing by  with   his   bow  and  arrows,  was  astonished  to  see  the 
great  apostle,  so  venerable  for  his  age  and  sanctity,  engaged  in 
such  an  amusement.      The  apostle  asked  him  if   he  always 
kept  his  bow  bent  ?      He  answered,  that  would  be  the  way  to 
render  it  useless.      '  If,'  replied  St.  John,  '  you  unbend  your 
bow  to  prevent  its  being  useless,  so  do  I  thus  unbend  my  mind 
for  the  same  reason.' '; 

7.  The  subject  entitled  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  John  repre- 
sents his  immersion  in  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  by  order  of 
the  Emperor  Domitian.     According  to  the  received  tradition, 
this  event  took  place  outside  the  Latin  gate  of  Rome  ;  and  on 
the    spot  stands  the  chapel  of    San  Giovanni  in   Olio,   com- 
memorating  his  miraculous   deliverance,  which  is  painted  in 
fresco  on  the  walls.     The  subject  forms,  of  course,  one  of  a 
series  of  the  life  of  St.  John,  and  is  occasionally  met  with  in 
old  prints  and  pictures ;  but  it  is  uncommon.      The  treatment 
affords  little  variety  ;   in  Albert  Diirer's  famous  woodcut,  St. 
John  is  sitting  in  a  pot  of  boiling  oil  ;   one  executioner  is  blow- 
ing the  fire,  another  is  pouring  oil  from  a  ladle  on  the  saint's 
head  ;   a  judge,  probably  intended  for  Domitian,  is  seated  on  a 
throne  to  the  left,  and  there  are  numerous  spectators.      Pado- 


162  v         THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

vanino  painted  this  subject  for  the  San  Pietro  at  Venice ; 
Rubens,  with  horrible  truth  of  detail,  for  the  altar-piece  of 
St.  John  at  Malines. 

It  is  the  martyrdom  in  the  boiling  oil  which  gives  St.  John 
the  right  to  bear  the  palm,  with  which  he  is  occasionally  seen. 

8.  St.  John,  habited  in  priest's  garments,  descends  the  steps 
of  an  altar  into  an  open  grave,  in  which  he  lays  himself  down, 
not  in  death,  but  in  sleep,  until  the  coming  of  Christ :   "  being 
reserved  alive  with  Enoch   and  Elijah  (who  also   knew  not 
death),  to   preach  against   the  Antichrist  in   the  last  days." 
This  fanciful  legend  is  founded  on  the  following  text :  "  Peter, 
seeing   the  disciple   whom  Jesus  loved  following,  saith  unto 
Jesus,  Lord,  and  what  shall  this  man  do  ?     Jesus  saith  unto 
him,  If  I  will  that  he  tarry  till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  thee  ? 
Then  went  this  saying  abroad  among  the  brethren,  that  that 
disciple  should  not  die."     (John  xxi.  21,  22.) 

The  legend  which  supposes  St.  John  reserved  alive  has  not 
been  generally  received  in  the  Church,  and  as  a  subject  of 
painting  it  is  very  uncommon.  It  occurs  in  the  Menologium 
Graecum  (Vatican  MSS.,  tenth  century),  where  the  grave  into 
which  St.  John  descends  is,  according  to  the  legend,  "fossa  in 
crucls  figuram  "  (in  the  form  of  a  cross).  In  a  series  of  the 
deaths  of  the  Apostles  (MSS.,  ninth  century.  Paris,  Nat. 
Library),  St.  John  is  ascending  from  the  grave ;  for,  according 
to  the  Greek  legend,  St.  John  died  without  pain  or  change, 
and  immediately  rose  again  in  bodily  form,  and  ascended  into 
heaven  to  rejoin  Christ  and  the  Virgin. 

In  a  small  and  very  curious  picture  which  I  saw  at  Rome 
(Vatican,  Christian  Museum),  forming  part  of  a  predella,  there 
is  a  tomb  something  like  the  Xanthian  tombs  in  form ;  one 
end  is  open ;  St.  John,  with  a  long  gray  beard,  is  seen  issuing 
from  it,  and,  as  he  ascends,  he  is  met  by  Christ,  the  Virgin, 
St.  Peter,  and  St.  Paul,  who  are  descending  from  above ; 
while  figures  below  look  up  with  astonishment.  On  the 
ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo  he  is  lying  in  an  open  grave  or 
sarcophagus. 

Of  the  miracles  performed  by  John  after  his  death,  two  are 
singularly  interesting  in  the  history  of  Art ;  both  have  been 
treated  in  sculpture. 

9.  When  the  Empress  Galla  Placidia  was  returning  from 


ST.   JOHN  163 

Constantinople  to  Eavenna  with  her  two  children  (A.  D.  425), 
she  encountered  a  terrible  storm.  In  her  fear  and  anguish 
she  vowed  a  vow  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  and,  being  landed 
in  safety,  she  dedicated  to  his  honor  a  magnificent  church. 
When  the  edifice  was  finished,  she  was  extremely  desirous  of 
procuring  some  relics  of  the  Evangelist,  wherewith  to  conse- 
crate his  sanctuary  ;  but  as  it  was  not  the  manner  of  those 
days  to  exhume,  and  buy  and  sell,  still  less  to  steal,  the  bodies 
of  holy  men  and  martyrs,  the  desire  of  the  pious  empress 
remained  unsatisfied.  However,  as  it  is  related,  St.  John 
himself  took  pity  upon  her ;  for  one  night,  as  she  prayed 
earnestly,  he  appeared  to  her  in  a  vision ;  and  when  she  threw 
herself  at  his  feet  to  embrace  and  kiss  them,  he  disappeared, 
leaving  one  of  his  slippers  or  sandals  in  her  hand,  which 
sandal  was  long  preserved. 

The  antique  church  of  Galla  Placidia  still  exists  at  Ra- 
v^nna,  to  keep  alive,  after  the  lapse  of  fourteen  centuries,  the 
memory  of  her  dream,  and  of  the  condescension  of  the  blessed 
apostle.  Not  much  of  the  original  building  is  left;  the 
superb  mosaics  have  all  disappeared,  except  a  few  fragments, 
in  which  may  be  traced  the  storm  at  sea,  and  Galla  Placidia 
making  her  vow.  Over  the  principal  porch,  which  is  of  white 
marble,  in  the  Lombard  style,  and  richly  and  elegantly  orna- 
mented, the  miracle  of  the  slipper  is  represented  in  two  bas- 
reliefs,  one  above  the  other.  The  lower  compartment,  or 
lunette,  represents  a  tabernacle,  and  within  it  an  altar ;  St. 
John  the  Evangelist  is  seen  offering  incense ;  on  the  other 
side  is  Barbation,  the  confessor  of  the  empress ;  she,  prostrate 
at  the  feet  of  the  apostle,  seems  to  take  off  his  sandal :  on 
each  side  are  six  hovering  angels  bearing  the  implements  of 
the  mass.  In  the  upper  compartment,  Galla  Placidia  is  seen 
kneeling  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  and  offering  to  him  the  sacred 
sandal,  while  the  Evangelist  stands  on  one  side,  and  Barbation 
on  the  other.  These  bas-reliefs  are  not  older  than  the  twelfth 
century,  and  are  in  excellent  preservation :  I  should  suppose, 
from  the  style  of  the  grouping,  that  they  were  copied,  or  imi- 
tated, from  the  older  mosaics,  once  in  the  interior  of  the  church. 

10.  The  other  miracle  has  the  rare  interest  of  being  Eng- 
lish in  its  origin  and  in  its  representation.  "  King  Edward 
the  Confessor1  had,  after  Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  a  special 

1  Vide  legend  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  the  Legends  of  the  Monastic 
Orders. 


164  THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

veneration  for  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  One  day,  returning 
from  his  church  at  Westminster,  where  he  had  been  hearing 
mass  in  honor  of  the  evangelist,  he  was  accosted  by  a  pilgrim, 
who  asked  of  him  an  alms  for  the  love  of  God  and  St.  John. 
The  king,  who  was  ever  merciful  to  the  poor,  immediately  drew 
from  his  ringer  a  ring,  and,  unknown  to  any  one,  delivered  it 
to  the  beggar.  When  the  king  had  reigned  twenty-four  years, 
it  came  to  pass  that  two  Englishmen,  pilgrims,  returning  from 
the  Holy  Land  to  their  own  country,  were  met  by  one  in  the 
habit  of  a  pilgrim,  who  asked  of  them  concerning  their  coun- 
try ;  and  being  told  they  were  of  England,  he  said  to  them, 
'  When  ye  shall  have  arrived  in  your  own  country,  go  to  King 
Edward,  and  salute  him  in  my  name ;  say  to  him,  that  I  thank 
him  for  the  alms  which  he  bestowed  on  me  in  a  certain  street 
in  Westminster  ;  for  there,  on  a  certain  day,  as  I  begged  of 
him  an  alms,  he  bestowed  on  me  this  ring,  which  till  now  I 
have  preserved,  and  ye  shall  carry  it  back  to  him,  saying  that 
in  six  months  from  this  time  he  shall  quit  the  world,  and  come 
and  remain  with  me  forever.'  And  the  pilgrims,  being 
astounded,  said,  '  Who  art  thou,  and  where  is  thy  dwelling- 
place  ? '  And  he  answered,  saying,  '  I  am  John  the  Evan- 
gelist. Edward,  your  king,  is  my  friend,  and  for  the  sanctity 
of  his  life  I  hold  him  dear.  Go  now,  therefore,  deliver  to 
him  this  message  and  this  ring,  and  I  will  pray  to  God  that 
ye  may  arrive  safely  in  your  own  country.'  When  St.  John 
had  spoken  thus  he  delivered  to  them  the  ring,  and  vanished 
out  of  their  sight.  The  pilgrims,  praising  and  thanking  the 
Lord  for  this  glorious  vision,  went  on  their  journey ;  and  be- 
ing arrived  in  England,  they  repaired  to  King  Edward,  and 
saluted  him,  and  delivered  the  ring  and  the  message,  relating 
all  truly.  And  the  king  received  the  news  joyfully,  and 
feasted  the  messengers  royally.  Then  he  set  himself  to  pre- 
pare for  his  departure  from  this  world.  On  the  eve  of  the 
Nativity,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1066,  he  fell  sick,  and  on 
the  eve  of  this  Epiphany  following  he  died.  The  ring  he 
gave  to  the  Abbot  of  Westminster,  to  be  forever  preserved 
among  the  relics  there."  (Johannis  Brompton  Cronicon,  955.) 
According  to  one  account  (Dart's  Hist,  of  Westminster), 
the  pilgrims  met  the  king  near  his  palace  at  Waltham,  at  a 
place  since  called  Havering.  The  writer  adds  :  "  In  allusion 
to  this  story,  King  Edward  II.  offered  at  his  coronation  a 


ST.   JOHN  165 

pound  of  gold  made  in  the  figure  of  a  king  holding  a  ring,  and 
a  mark  of  gold  (8  oz.)  made  like  to  a  pilgrim  putting  forth  his 
hand  to  receive  the  ring."  These  must  have  been  two  little 
statuettes  of  gold. 

The  legend  of  King  Edward  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist 
is  represented,  with  other  legends  of  the  same  monarch,  along 
the  top  of  the  screen  of  Edward  the  Confessor's  chapel.  It  is 
in  three  compartments.  The  first  represents  King  Edward 
bestowing  the  ring  on  St.  John  in  the  disguise  of  a  pilgrim ; 
Westminster  Abbey  is  seen  behind.  The  second  shows  us  the 
meeting  of  the  pilgrims  and  St.  John  in  Palestine ;  he  holds 
what  seems  a  palm.  In  the  third  the  pilgrims  deliver  the 
ring  to  King  Edward,  who  is  seated  at  table.  The  sculp- 
ture is  very  rude  ;  the  figures  disproportioned  and  ungraceful. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Henry  VI. 

The  same  legend  was  painted  on  one  of  the  windows  of 
Romford  church,  in  Essex,  but  whether  it  still  exists  there  I 
know  not.1 

Before  I  quit  the  subject  of  the  Evangelists,  it  is  worth 
while  to  observe  that,  in  Greek  Art,  not  only  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists, but  the  six  writers  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  are  consid- 
ered as  a  sacred  series.  In  an  ancient  and  beautiful  MS.  of 
the  "  Epistole  Canoniche,"  presented  by  the  Queen  of  Cyprus 
to  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  they  are  thus  represented,  two  and 
two  together :  — 

St.  Luke,  with  a  very  thoughtful,  earnest  countenance,  holds 
a  scroll,  on  which  is  written  in  Greek  the  commencement  of 
the  Acts,  "  The  former  treatise  have  I  made,  0  Theophilus," 
etc.  ;  and  St.  James,  with  a  long,  very  earnest,  and  refined 
face,  holds  a  single  roll. 

St.  Peter,  with  a  broad,  coarse,  powerful  physiognomy, 
strongly  characterized,  holds  two  rolls ;  and  St.  John,  with  a 
long  and  very  refined  face,  gray  hair  and  beard,  holds  three 
rolls. 

St.  Jude,  with  a  long  white  beard  and  very  aquiline  nose, 
holds  one  roll.  St.  Paul,  bald  in  front,  with  long  brown  hair 
and  beard,  and  a  refined  face,  bears  many  rolls  tied  up  to- 
gether. 

1  [The  window  was  in  the  South  Chapel  of  the  old  Church  of  St.  Edward's, 
but  is  now  lost.] 


166  THE  FOUR   EVANGELISTS 

All  the  figures  are  on  a  gold  ground,  about  six  inches  in 
height,  very  finely  conceived,  though,  as  is  usual  in  Byzantine 
Art,  formal  and  mechanical  in  execution.  They  look  like 
small  copies  of  very  grand  originals.  The  draperies  are  all 
classical ;  a  pale  violet  or  brown  tunic  and  a  white  mantle,  as 
in  the  old  mosaics ;  the  rolls  in  their  hands  corresponding  with 
the  number  of  their  writings. 


IV.   THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

NEXT  to  those  who  recorded  the  Word  of  God,  were  those 
called  by  Christ  to  the  task  of  diffusing  His  doctrine,  and  sent 
to  preach  the  kingdom  of  heaven  "  through  all  nations." 

The  earliest  representations  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  appear 
to  have  been,  like  those  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  purely  em- 
blematical :  they  were  figured  as  twelve  sheep,  with  Christ  in 
the  midst,  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  bearing  a  lamb  in  His^  arms ; 
or,  much  more  frequently,  Christ  is  Himself  the  Lamb  of  God, 
raised  on  an  eminence  and  crowned  with  a  cruciform  nimbus, 
and  the  apostles  were  ranged  on  each  side  as  sheep.  Instances 
are  to  be  met  with  in  the  old  Christian  bas-reliefs.  In  the 


old  Koman  churches  (S.  M.  in  Trastevere,  S.  Prassede,  S. 
Clemente,  S.  Cecilia)  we  find  this  representation  but  little 
varied,  and  the  situation  is  always  the  same.  In  the  centre 
is  the  lamb  standing  on  an  eminence,  from  which  flow  the  four 
rivers  of  Paradise  ;  on  one  side  six  sheep  issuing  from  the 
city  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  other  six  sheep  issuing  from  the  city 
of  Bethlehem,  the  whole  disposed  in  a  line  forming  a  sort  of 
frieze,  just  below  the  decoration  of  the  vault  of  the  apsis.  The 
church  of  S.  M.  Maggiore  exhibits  the  only  exception  I  have 
met  with :  there  we  find  a  group  of  sheep,  entering,  not  issu- 
ing from,  the  gates  of  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem  :  in  this  case, 
however,  the  sheep  may  represent  believers,  or  disciples  in 
general,  not  the  Twelve  Apostles.  Upon  the  great  crucifix  in 
the  apsis  of  San  Clemente,  at  Rome,  are  twelve  doves,  which 
appear  to  signify  the  Twelve  Apostles. 


1G8  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

The  next  step  was  to  represent  the  Apostles  as  twelve  men 
all  alike,  each  with  a  sheep,  and  Christ  in  the  middle,  also 
with  a  sheep,  sometimes  larger  than  the  others.  We  find  this 
on  some  of  the  sarcophagi.  (Bottari,  Tab.  xxviii.)  Again,  a 
little  later,  we  have  them  represented  as  twelve  venerable  men, 
bearing  tablets  or  scrolls  in  their  hands,  no  emblems  to  dis- 
tinguish one  from  another,  but  their  names  inscribed  over  or 
beside  each.  They  are  thus  represented  in  relief  on  several 
ancient  sarcophagi  now  in  the  Christian  Museum  in  the  Vati- 
can, and  in  several  of  the  most  ancient  churches  at  Rome  and 
Ravenna,  ranged  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour  in  the  vault  of 
the  apsis,  or  standing  in  a  line  beneath. 

But- while  in  the  ancient  Greek  types,  and  the  old  mosaics, 
the  attributes  are  omitted,  they  adhere  almost  invariably  to  a 
certain  characteristic  individual  representation,  which  in  the 
later  ages  of  painting  was  wholly  lost,  or  at  least  neglected. 
In  these  eldest  types,  St.  Peter  has  a  broad  face,  white  hair, 
and  short  white  beard :  St.  Paul,  a  long  face,  high  bold  fore- 
head, dark  hair  and  beard  :  St.  Andrew  is  aged,  with  flowing 
white  hair  and  beard :  St.  John,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip,  young 
and  beardless  :  St.  James  Major  and  St.  James  Minor,  in  the 
prime  of  life,  short  brown  hair  and  beard  ;  both  should  bear  a 
resemblance  more  or  less  to  the  Saviour,  but  St.  James  Minor 
particularly  :  St.  Matthew,  St.  Jude,  St.  Simon,  St.  Matthias, 
aged,  with  white  hair.  The  tablets  or  scrolls  which  they 
carry  in  their  hands  bear,  or  are  supposed  to  bear,  the  articles 
of  the  Creed.  It  is  a  tradition,  that,  before  the  apostles  dis- 
persed to  preach  the  Gospel  in  all  lands,  they  assembled  to 
compose  the  declaration  of  faith  since  called  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  and  that  each  of  them  furnished  one  of  the  twelve 
propositions  contained  in  it,  in  the  following  order :  —  St. 
Peter :  Credo  in  Deum  Patrem  omnipotentem,  creatorem 
cceli  et  terra?.  St.  Andrew  :  Et  in  Jesurn  Christum  Filium 
cjiis  unifi-urn,  Dominum  nostrum.  St.  James  Major :  Qui 
conceptus  est  de  Spiritu  Sancto,  natus  ex  Maria  Virgine. 
St.  John  :  Passus  sub  Pontio  Pilato,  crucifixus,  mortuui> 
et  siyjultus.  St.  Philip  :  Descendit  ad  inferos,  tertia  die 
resurrexit  a  mortuis.  St.  James  Minor :  Ascendit  ad  ccc- 
los,  sedet  ad  dexteram  Dei  Patris  omnipotentis.  St. 
Thomas  :  Tnde  venturus  est  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos.  St. 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


1G9 


Bartholomew :  Credo  in  Spiritum  Sanctum.  St.  Matthew  : 
Sanctam  Ecclesiam  Catholicam  ;  sanctorum  communionem. 
St.  Simon  :  Remissionem  peccatorum.  St.  Matthias  :  Carnis 
resurrect  ionem.  St.  Thaddeus  :  Et  vitam  ceternam. 

The  statues  of  the  apostles  [by  Orcagna]  on  the  shrine  of 
the  Virgin  in  the  San  Michele  at  Florence  exhibit  a  fine 
example  of  this  arrangement.  I  give  the  figure  of  St.  Philip, 
holding  his  appropriate  sentence  of 
the  Creed  on  a  scroll. 

In  later  times,  the  Apostles,  in- 
stead of  being  disposed  in  a  line,  are 
grouped  round  the  Saviour  in  glory, 
or  they  form  a  circle  of  heads  in 
medallions :  as  statues,  they  orna- 
ment the  screen  in  front  of  the  altar, 
or  they  are  placed  in  a  line  on  each 
side  of  the  nave,  standing  against  the 
pillars  which  support  it.  From  the 
sixth  century  it  became  usual  to  dis- 
tinguish each  of  them  by  a  particular 
emblem  or  attribute  borrowed  from 
some  circumstance  of  his  life  or 
death.  Thus,  taking  them  in  order, 
according  to  the  canon  of  the  mass  — 

St.  Peter  bears  the  keys  or  a  fish. 

St.  Paul,  the  sword :  sometimes 
two  swords. 

St.  Andrew,  the  transverse  cross. 

St.  James  Major,  the  pilgrim's  staff. 

St.  John,  the  chalice  with  the  ser- 
pent ;   sometimes  the  eagle  also ;   but 
the  eagle,  as  I  have  observed,  belongs  to  him  properly  only  in 
his  character  of  Evangelist. 

St.  Thomas,  a  builder's  rule  :   also,  but  more  seldom,  a  spear. 

St.  James  Minor,  a  club. 

St.  Philip,  the  staff  or  crosier,  surmounted  by  a  cross ;  or  a 
small  cross  in  his  hand. 

St.  Bartholomew,  a  large  knife. 

St.  Matthew,  a  purse. 

St.  Simon,  a  saw. 


St.  Philip  (Orcagna) 


170 


THE    TWELVE   APOSTLES 


St.  Thaddeus  (or  Jude),  a  halberd  or  lance. 

St.  Matthias,  a  lance. 

The  origin  and  meaning  of  these  attributes  will  be  explained 
presently  :  meantime  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  although 
in  sacred  Art  the  Apostles  are  always  twelve  in  number,  they 
are  not  always  the  same  personages.  St.  Jude  is  frequently 
omitted  to  make  room  for  St.  Paul.  Sometimes,  in  the  most 
ancient  churches  (as  in  the  Cathedral  of  Palermo),  St.  Simon 
and  St.  Matthias  are  omitted,  and  the  evangelists  St.  Mark  and 
St.  Luke  figure  in  their  places.  The  Byzantine  manual  pub- 
lished by  Didron  omits  James  Minor,  Jude,  and  Matthias ; 
and  inserts  Paul,  Luke,  and  Mark.  This  was  the  arrange- 
ment on  the  bronze  doors  of  San  Paolo-fuori-le-Mura  at  Rome, 
executed  by  Byzantine  artists  in  the  tenth  century,  and  now 
destroyed. 

On  an  ancient  pulpit,  of  beautiful  workmanship,  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Troyes,  the  arrangement  is  according  to  the  Greek 
formula.1  Thus  — 


1 

^ 

i*     tf 

e 

0 

^ 

It*  -3 

•s 

•    .  a;  5 

r    a>   -    E 

1 

S  j|   «     . 

o 

"o 

x 
o 

-2  -^  "H  2 
(2  >J  ^  H 

« 

Illl 

B 

•53 

CO 

CO  GO  GO  GO 

1-5 

CO  GO  GO  CO 

H 

co  co  aj  GO 

•^ 

Here,  John  the  Baptist  figures  in  his  character  of  angel  or 
messenger ;  and  St.  Paul,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke  take  the 
place  of  St.  James  Minor,  St.  Jude,  and  St.  Matthias. 

The  earliest  instance  of  the  Apostles  entering  into  a  scheme 
of  ecclesiastical  decoration,  as  the  consecrated  and  delegated 
teachers  of  a  revealed  religion,  occurs  in  the  church  of  San 
Giovanni  in  Fonte  at  Ravenna.2  In  the  centre  of  the  dome 
is  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  represented  quite  in  the  classical 
style  ;  the  figure  of  the  Saviour  being  entirely  undraped,  and 
the  Jordan,  signified  by  an  antique  river  god,  sedge-crowned, 
and  bearing  a  linen  napkin  as  though  he  were  an  attendant 
at  a  bath.  Around,  in  a  circle,  in  the  manner  of  radii,  are 
the  Twelve  Apostles.  The  order  is,  —  Peter,  Andrew,  James, 

1  The  churches  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  France,  particularly  in  Cham- 
pagne, exhibit  marked  traces  of  the  influence  of  Greek  Art  in  the  eleventh 
mid  twelfth  centuries. 

-  A.  D.  451.    Ciampini,  Vet.  Mon.  p.  1,  c.  5v. 


THE   TWELVE  APOSTLES  171 

John,  Philip,  Bartholomew,  Simon,  Jude,  James  Minor, 
Matthew,  Thomas,  Paul ;  so  that  Peter  and  Paul  stand  face  to 
face  at  one  extremity  of  the  circle,  and  Simon  and  Bartholo- 
mew back  to  back  at  the  other.  All  wear  pointed  caps,  and 
carry  the  oblation  in  their  hands.  Peter  has  a  yellow  vest 
and  white  mantle ;  Paul,  a  white  vest  and  a  yellow  mantle, 
and  so  all  around  alternately.  The  name  of  each  is  inscribed 
over  his  head,  and  without  the  title  Sanctus,  which,  though 
admitted  into  the  Calendar  in  449,  was  not  adopted  in  works 
of  Art  till  some  years  later,  about  472. 

In  the  next  instance,  the  attributes  had  not  yet  been 
admitted,  except  in  the  figures  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

MOSAIC  (A.  D.  816).  Christ,  in  the  centre,  stands  on  an 
eminence ;  in  one  hand  He  holds  an  open  book,  on  which  is 
inscribed  Pax  vobis.  St.  Peter,  with  the  keys  and  a  cross, 
stands  on  the  right ;  and  Christ,  with  His  right  hand,  points 
to  the  cross.  St.  Paul  is  on  the  left,  with  his  sword  ;  beyond, 
there  are  five  Apostles  on  one  side,  and  four  on  the  other :  in 
all,  eleven  (Judas  being  properly  omitted).  Each  holds  a 
book,  and  all  are  robed  in  white ;  underneath  the  whole  is 
inscribed,  in  Latin,  the  words  of  our  Saviour,  "  Go  ye,  and 
teach  all  nations."  On  the  arch  to  the  right,  Christ  is  seated 
on  a  throne,  and  presents  the  keys  to  St.  Peter,  who  kneels 
on  one  side,  and  the  standard  to  Constantine,  who  kneels  on 
the  other  (alluding,  of  course,  to  the  famous  standard).  On 
the  arch  to  the  left,  St.  Peter  is  throned,  and  presents  the 
stole  to  Pope  Leo  III.,  and  the  standard  to  Charlemagne. 
This  singular  monument,  a  kind  of  resume  of  the  power  of 
the  Church,  is  a  restoration  of  the  old  mosaic,  executed  by 
order  of  Leo  III.  in  the  Triclinium  of  the  old  palace  of  the 
Lateran,  and  now  on  one  side  of  the  Scala  Santa,  the  side 
facing  the  Porta  San  Giovanni. 

MOSAIC,  in  the  old  basilica  of  St.  Paul  (A.  D.  1206).  In 
the  centre  an  altar  veiled,  on  which  are  the  Gospels  (or  per- 
haps, rather,  the  Book  of  Life,  the  seven-sealed  book  in  the 
Revelation),  and  the  instruments  of  the  Passion.  Behind 
it  rises  a  large  Greek  cross,  adorned  with  gold  and  jewels. 
Underneath,  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  five  small  figures  stand- 
ing and  bearing  palms,  representing  those  who  suffered  for 
the  cause  of  Christ ;  and  on  each  side,  kneeling,  the  monk 
Aginulph,  and  Giovanni  Gaetano  Orsini,  afterwards  Xicholas 


172  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

III.  On  each  side  of  the  altar,  a  majestic  angel :  one  bears 
a  scroll,  inscribed  GLORIA  IN  EXCELSIS  DEO  ;  the  other,  ET 

IN     TERRA    PAX    HOMINIBUS     BON^E     VOLUNTATIS.        Beyond 

these  the  Apostles,  six  on  each  side,  bearing  scrolls  with  the 
articles  of  the  Creed.  They  are  much  alike,  all  in  whife 
robes,  and  alternately  with  each  stands  a  palm-tree,  the  sym- 
bol of  victory  and  resurrection.  This  composition,  of  a 
colossal  size,  formed  a  kind  of  frieze  (taking  the  place  of  the 
emblematical  lamb  and  twelve  sheep)  round  the  apsis  of  the 
Basilica. 

In  sculpture,  the  Apostles,  as  a  series,  entered  into  all  dec- 
orative ecclesiastical  architecture ;  sometimes  on  the  exterior 
of  the  edifice,  always  in  the  interior.  In  our  English  cathe- 
drals they  are  seldom  found  unmutilated,  except  when  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  spoiler;  such  was  the  indiscriminate  rage 
which  confounded  the  venerable  effigies  of  these  delegated 
teachers  of  the  truth  with  the  images  which  were  supposed 
to  belong  exclusively  to  the  repudiated  religion  ! 

Where  the  scheme  of  decoration  is  purely  theological,  the 
proper  place  of  the  Apostles  is  after  the  Angels,  Prophets, 
and  Evangelists ;  but  when  the  motif,  or  leading  idea,  implies 
a  special  signification,  such  as  the  Last  Judgment,  Paradise, 
the  Coronation  of  the  Madonna,  or  the  apotheosis  of  a  saint, 
then  the  order  is  changed,  and  the  Apostles  appear  immedi- 
ately after  the  Divine  Personages  and  before  the  angels,  as 
forming  a  part  of  the  council  or  court  of  heaven,  —  "  When 
the  Son  of  Man  shall  come  in  His  glory,  ye  also  shall  sit  on 
twelve  thrones,  judging  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel."  (Matt. 
xix.  28 ;  and  Luke  xxii.  30.)  Such  is  the  arrangement  in 
the  Campo  Santo,  in  Angelico's  "  Paradiso  "  in  the  Academy, 
Florence,  in  Raphael's  "  Disputa,"  and  many  other  instances  : 
and  I  may  add  the  architectural  treatment  on  the  faqade  of 
Wells  Cathedral,  where,  immediately  under  the  Saviour  sit- 
ting in  judgment,  stand  the  Twelve  Apostles,  and  beneath 
them  the  hierarchy  of  angels,  each  of  the  nine  choirs  being 
here  expressed  by  a  single  angel.1  Therefore  to  determine 
the  proper  place  of  the  Apostles,  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
well  and  to  understand  what  has  been  the  design  of  the  artist, 

1  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Cockerell's  illustrations  and  restorations  of 
the  rich  and  multifarious  and  significant  sculpture  of  Wells  Cathedral. 


THE   TWELVE    APOSTLES  173 

and  the  leading  idea  of  the  whole  composition,  whether  strictly 
theoloyical  or  partly  scenic.  In  all  monuments  which  have 
a  solemn  or  a  sacred  purpose,  —  altars,  pulpits,  tombs,  —  the 
Apostles  find  an  appropriate  place,  either  in  connection  with 
other  sacred  personages,  or  as  a  company  apart,  —  the  band  of 
teachers.  The  range  of  statues  along  the  top  of  the  screen  in 
front  of  the  choir  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice  will  be  remembered 
by  all  who  have  seen  them  :  in  the  centre  stand  the  Virgin 
and  St.  Mark,  and  then  the  Apostles,  six  on  each  side,  grand 
solemn  figures,  standing  there  as  if  to  guard  the  sanctuary. 
These  are  by  Jacobelli,  in  the  simple  religious  style  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  but  quite  Italian.  In  contrast  with  them, 
as  the  finest  example  of  German  sculptural  treatment,  we  have 
the  Twelve  Apostles  on  the  tomb  of  St.  Sebald,  in  his  church 
at  Nuremberg,  cast  in  bronze  by  Peter  Vischer  (about  1500). 
These  have  become  well  known  by  the  casts  which  have  lately 
been  brought  to  England ;  they  are  about  two  feet  high,  all 
remarkable  for  the  characteristic  expression  of  the  heads,  and 
the  grand  simplicity  of  the  attitudes  and  draperies. 

There  are  instances  of  the  Apostles  introduced  into  a 
scheme  of  ecclesiastical  decoration  as  devotional  figures,  but 
assuming,  from  the  style  of  treatment  and  from  being  placed 
in  relation  with  other  personages,  a  touch  of  the  dramatic  and 
picturesque.  Such  are  Correggio's  Apostles  in  the  cupola  of 
the  duomo  at  Parma  (1532),  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
most  striking  instance  that  could  be  produced  of  studied  con- 
trast to  the  solemnity  and  simplicity  of  the  ancient  treatment : 
here  the  motif  is  essentially  dramatic.  They  stand  round  the 
dome  as  spectators  would  stand  in  a  gallery  or  balcony,  all 
in  picturesque  attitudes,  studiously  varied  (some,  it  must  be 
confessed,  rather  extravagant),  and  all  looking  up  with  amaze- 
ment, or  hope,  or  joy,  or  adoration,  to  the  figure  of  the  glori- 
fied Virgin  ascending  into  heaven. 

Another  series  of  Apostles  in  the  San  Giovanni  at  Parma 
which  Correggio  had  painted  earlier  (1522),  are  conceived 
I  think,  in  a  finer  spirit  as  to  character,  but,  perhaps,  not 
more  appropriate  to  the  scene.  Here  the  Twelve  Apostles  are 
seated  011  clouds  round  the  glorified  Saviour,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  in  heaven  :  they  are  but  partially  draped.  In  the 
heads  but  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  ancient  types, 
except  in  those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ;  but  they  are  sub- 


174  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

lime  as  well  as  picturesque  in  the  conception  of  character  and 
expression. 

The  Apostles  in  Michael  Angelo's  Last  Judgment  (A.  D. 
1540)  exhibit  a  still  further  deviation  from  the  antique  style 
of  treatment.  They  stand  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour,  who  is 
not  here  Saviour  and  Redeemer,  but  inexorable  Judge.  They 
are  grandly  and  artificially  grouped,  all  without  any  drapery 
whatever,  and  with  forms  and  attitudes  which  recall  an  assem- 
blage of  Titans  holding  a  council  of  war,  rather  than  the 
glorified  companions  of  Christ.  [Sistine  Chapel.]  In  early 
pictures  of  Christ  in  glory,  the  Apostles,  His  companions  in 
heaven  as  on  earth,  form,  with  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets, 
the  celestial  court  or  council :  they  sit  upon  thrones  to  the 
right  and  to  the  left.  (Luke  xxii.  30.)  Raphael's  "  Dis- 
puta"  in  the  Vatican  is  a  grand  example  of  this  arrangement. 

Sets  of  the  Apostles,  in  devotional  pictures  and  prints,  are 
so  common,  that  I  shall  particularize  only  a  few  among  the 
most  interesting  and  celebrated.  Engravings  of  these  can 
easily  be  referred  to. 

1.  A  set  by  Raphael,  engraved  by  Marc  Antonio  :  grand, 
graceful    figures,    and    each    with    his    appropriate    attribute. 
Though  admirably  distinguished    in    form  and  bearing,  very 
little   attention  has   been   paid  to  the  ancient  types,   except 
perhaps  in  St.  Peter  and  St.  John.     Here  St.  James  Minor 
is  omitted  to  make  room  for  St.  Paul.      [The  engravings  are 
from  Raphael's  frescoes  in  the  Hall  of  the  Pope's  Pages,  Vati- 
can.     The  original  pictures  have  been  repainted,  so  that  the 
master's  hand  is  no  longer  recognizable.] 

2.  A  set  by  Lucas  van  Leyden,  smaller  than  Raphael's,  but 
magnificent  in  feeling  :    here  also  the  ancient  types  are  for  the 
most  part  neglected.     These  two  sets  should  be  compared  as 
perfect  examples  of  the  best  Italian  and  the  most  characteristic 
German  manner.     Some  of  the  German  sets  are  very  curious 
and  grotesque. 

3.  By  H.   S.   Beham,  a  most  curious  set,  in  what  may  be 
called  the  ultra  German  style :    they  stand  two  and  two  to- 
gether, like    a   procession   of   old   beggars;   the   workmanship 
exquisite.     Another  set  by  Beham,  in  which  the  figures  stand 
singly,  and  which  includes  the  Four   Evangelists,  dressed  like 
old  burgomasters,  with  the  emblematical  wings,  has  been  already 
mentioned. 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES  175 

4.  A  set  by  Parmigiano,  graceful  and  mannered,  as  is  usual 
with  him. 

5.  By  Agostino  Caracci.     This  set,  famous  as  works  of  Art, 
must,  when  compared  with  those  of  Eaphael  and  Lucas  van 
Leyden,  be  pronounced  absolutely  vulgar.     Here  St.  John  is 
drinking  out  of  his  cup,  —  an  idea  which  might  strike  some 
people  as  picturesque  ;   but  it  is  in  vile  taste.     Thaddeus  has  a 
saw  as  well  as  Simon ;    Peter  has  the  papal  tiara  at  his  feet ; 
St.  James  Minor,  instead  of  Thomas,  carries  the  builder's  rule ; 
and  St.   Bartholomew  has  his  skin  thrown  over  his  shoulders. 
This  set  is  an  example  of  the  confusion  which    prevailed  with 
respect  to  the  old  religious  types  and  attributes,  after  the  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

6.  "  The  Five  Disciples,"  by  Albert  Dtirer,  seem  intended 
to  form  part  of  a  complete  set.      We  have  St.   Paul,  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip,  and  St.  Simon.      The  two 
last  are  the  finest,  and  are  most  grandly  conceived. 

These  are  examples  of  the  simplest  devotional  treatment. 

When  the  Apostles  are  grouped  together  in  various  histori- 
cal scenes,  —  some  scriptural,  some  legendary  — they  are  more 
interesting  as  individual  personages ;  and  the  treatment  should 
be  more  characteristic.  Some  of  these  subjects  belong  prop- 
erly to  the  life  of  Christ :  as  the  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to 
Peter ;  the  Transfiguration  ;  the  Entry  into  Jerusalem ;  the 
Last  Supper;  the  Ascension.  Others,  as  the  Death  and  As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,  will  be  considered  in  the  Legends  of 
the  Madonna.  But  there  are  others,  again,  which  refer  more 
particularly  to  the  personal  history  of  the  Apostles,  as  related 
in  the  Acts  and  in  the  Legends. 

The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant event  after  the  Ascension  of  Christ.  It  is  thus 
described :  "  When  the  day  of  Pentecost  was  fully  come,  they 
were  all  with  one  accord  in  one  place.  And  suddenly  there 
came  a  sound  from  heaven,  as  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind,  and 
it  filled  all  the  house  where  they  were  sitting.  And  there 
appeared  unto  them  cloven  tongues,  like  as  of  fire,  and  sat 
upon  each  of  them,  and  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  began  to  speak  with  other  tongues,  as  the  Spirit 
gave  them  utterance.  And  there  were  dwelling  at  Jerusalem 
Jews,  devout  men,  out  of  every  nation  under  heaven.  Now 


176  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

when  this  was  noised  abroad  the  multitude  came  together,  and 
were  confounded,  because  that  every  man  heard  them  speak  in 
his  own  language.  .  .  .  But  this  is  that  which  was  spoken  by 
the  prophet  Joel."  (Acts  ii.  1-6,  16.) 

According  to  the  usual  interpretation,  the  word  they,  in  the 
first  verse,  does  not  signify  the  Apostles  merely,  but,  with  them, 
"  the  women,  and  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  His  breth- 
ren :  "  hence  in  so  many  representations  of  this  subject  the 
Virgin  is  not  only  present,  but  a  principal  person ;  Mary  Mag- 
dalene and  others  are  also  frequently  introduced. 

1.  The  most  striking  example  I  have  yet  met  with   is  the 
grand  mosaic  in  the  principal  dome  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice. 
In  the  apex  of  the  dome  is  seen  the  Celestial  Dove  in  a  glory 
of  light ;  rays  proceed  from  the  centre  on  every  side,  and  fall 
on  the  heads  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Twelve  Apostles,  seated  in 
a  circle.     Lower  down  is  a  series  of  twelve  figures  standing  all 
round  the  dome  ;  "Parthians,  Medes,  and  Elamites,  the  dwell- 
ers in  Mesopotamia,  Judea,  Cappadocia,  Pontus,  Asia,  Phrygia, 
Pamphylia,  Cretes,  and  Arabians,"  —  each  nation  represented 
by  one  person,  and  all  in  strange  dresses,  and  looking  up  with 
amazement. 

2.  The   Twelve   Apostles   and  the   Virgin  are   seen  above 
seated  in  an  inclosure  ;  tongues  of  fire  descend  from  heaven ; 
beneath  is  a  closed  door,  at  which  several  persons  in  strange 
foreign  dresses,  with  turbans,  etc.,  are  listening  with  amaze- 
ment.    One  of  these  is  in  the  Chinese  costume,  —  a  curious 
circumstance,  considering  the  age  of  the  picture,  and  which 
could   have    occurred    at    that  date   nowhere   but  at  Venice. 
(Venice  Acad.,  fourteenth  century.) 

3.  In  the  interior  of  a  temple,  sustained  by  slender  pillars, 
the  Twelve  Apostles  are  seated  in  a  circle,  and  in  the  midst 
the  Virgin,  tongues  of  fire  on  each  head.      Here  the  Virgin 
is  the  principal  person.      [Attributed  by  Rosini  to  Troso  da 
Monza.] 

4.  An   interior,   the   Twelve   Apostles   seated  in   a   circle  ; 
above  them,  the  Celestial  Dove  in  a  glory,  and  from  his  beak 
proceed  twelve  tongues  of  flame  :   underneath,  in  a  small  arch, 
is  the  prophet   Joel,  as  an  old  man  crowned  with  a  kingly 
crown  and  holding  twelve  rolls   or   scrolls,  indicating  the  Gos- 
pel  in    .so  many  different  languages.      The  allusion  is  to  the 
words  of  Joel  ii.  28 :    "  And   I  will  pour  out  my  Spirit  upon 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES  177 

all  flesh."  (Convent  of  Chilandari,  Mount  Atlios.)  This  is 
the  Greek  formula,  and  it  is  curious  that  it  should  have  been 
closely  followed  by  Pinturicchio  ;  thus  : 

5.  In  a  rich  landscape,  with  cypresses,  palm-trees,  and  birds, 
the  Virgin   is   seen  kneeling ;    St.    Peter  on  the   right,   and 
James  Minor  on  the  left,  also  kneeling ;    five  other  Apostles 
on  each  side.     The  Celestial  Dove,  with  outspread  wings,  de- 
scends in  a  glory  surrounded  by  fifteen  cherubim :  there  are 
no  tongues  of  fire.      The  prophet  Joel  is  seen  above,  with  the 
inscription,    "  Effiindam  de  Spiritu  meo  super  omnem  car- 
nem.  "     [Joel  ii.  28.]      (Vatican,  Sala  del  Pozzo.) 

6.  The  Virgin  and  the  Apostles  seated  ;  flames  of  fire  stand 
on  their  heads ;  the  Holy  Ghost  appears  above  in   a  glory  of 
light,  from  which  rays  are  poured  on  every  side.     Mary  Mag- 
dalene and  another  Mary  are  present  behind ;    astonishment 
is  the  prevailing  expression  in  every  face,  except  in  the  Virgin 
and  St.    Peter.      The   composition  is   attributed   to    Raphael. 
[One  of  the  tapestries  of  the  Vatican  in  the  series  of  the  Life 
of  Christ  called  the  "  Arazzi  della  Scuola  nuova."] 

The  next  event  of  importance  is  the  separation  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  when  they  disperse  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
all  lands.  According  to  the  ancient  traditions,  the  Apostles 
determined  by  lot  to  what  countries  they  should  go  :  Peter 
went  to  Antioch  ;  James  the  •  Great  remained  in  Jerusalem 
and  the  neighborhood ;  Philip  went  to  Phrygia ;  John  to 
Ephesus  ;  Thomas  to  Parthia  and  Judea  ;  Andrew  to  Scythia  ; 
Bartholomew  to  India  and  Judea.  The  Parting  of  the  Apos- 
tles is  a  beautiful  subject,  of  which  I  have  met  with  but  few 
examples  ;  one  is  a  woodcut  after  Titian.  The  Mission  of  the 
Apostles  I  remember  to  have  seen  by  Bissoni  over  an  altar  in 
the  Santa  Giustina  at  Padua  ;  they  are  preparing  to  depart ; 
one  reads  from  a  book ;  another  looses  his  shoes  from  his  feet, 
in  allusion  to  the  text,  "Take  neither  purse,  nor  scrip,  nor 
shoes ;  "  several  are  bidding  adieu  to  the  Virgin.  This  picture 
struck  me  as  dramatic  ;  its  merits  otherwise  I  do  not  remember. 

We  have  next  "  The  Twelve  Baptisms."  (Greek  MS.,  ninth 
century.  Paris,  Bibl.  du  Eoi.)  In  the  upper  compartment 
Christ  is  standing  in  a  majestic  attitude,  and  on  each  side  are 
six  Apostles,  all  alike,  and  in  white  garments.  The  inscrip- 


178  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

tion  above  is  in  Greek  :  "  Go  ye,  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  all 
nations."  Below  in  twelve  smaller  compartments,  each  of 
the  Apostles  is  seen  baptising  a  convert :  an  attendant,  in 
white  garments,  stands  by  each  font,  holding  a  napkin.  One 
of  the  converts  and  his  attendant  are  black,  denoting  clearly 
the  chamberlain  of  the  Queen  of  Ethiopia.  This  is  a  very 
uncommon  subject. 

And,  lastly,  we  have  "  The  Twelve  Martyrdoms."  This  is 
a  more  frequent  series,  in  pictures  and  in  prints,  and  occurs  in 
a  set  of  large  fresco  compositions  in  the  church  of  San  Nereo  e 
Sant'  Achilleo  at  Rome.  In  such  representations  the  usual 
treatment  is  as  follows :  1.  St.  Peter  is  crucified  with  his 
head  downwards.  2.  St.  Andrew,  bound  on  a  transverse  cross. 
3.  St.  James  Major,  beheaded  with  a  sword.  4.  St.  John,  in 
a  caldron  of  boiling  oil.  5.  St.  Philip,  bound  on  a  cross  in 
the  form  of  a  T.  6.  St.  Bartholomew,  flayed.  7.  St.  Thomas, 
pierced  with  a  spear.  8.  St.  Matthew,  killed  with  a  sword. 
9.  St.  James  Minor,  struck  down  with  a  club.  10.  St.  Simon 
and  St.  Jude  together ;  one  is  killed  with  a  sword,  the  other 
with  a  club.  11.  St.  Matthias  has  his  head  cloven  by  a  hal- 
berd. 12.  St.  Paul  is  beheaded.  (A  set  of  martyrdoms  is  in 
the  Frankfort  Museum ;  another  is  mentioned  in  Bartsch  [Le 
Peintre  Graveur],  vol.  viii.  p.  22.) 

The  authority  for  many  of  these  martyrdoms  is  wholly 
apocryphal,1  and  they  sometimes  vary ;  but  this  is  the  usual 
mode  of  representation  in  Western  Art.  In  early  Greek  Art 
a  series  of  the  Deaths  of  the  Apostles  often  occurs,  but  they 
do  not  all  suffer  martyrdom ;  and  the  subject  of  St.  John  in 
the  caldron  of  boiling  oil,  so  famous  in  the  Latin  Church,  is, 
I  believe,  unknown,  or,  at  least,  so  rare,  that  I  have  not  found 
it  in  genuine  Byzantine  Art. 

The  most  ancient  series  I  have  met  with  (in  a  Greek  MS. 
of  the  ninth  century)  shows  us  five  Apostles  crucified :  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Philip  with  the  head  downwards  ;  St.  Andrew 
on  the  transverse  cross,  as  usual ;  St.  Simon  and  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, in  the  same  manner  as  our  Saviour.  St.  Thomas  is 
pierced  by  a  lance ;  and  St.  John  is  buried,  and  then  raised 

1  Eusebius  says  that  all  the  Apostles  suffered  martyrdom ;  but  this  is  not 
borne  out  by  any  ancient  testimony.  Lardner's  Credibility  of  Gospel  His- 
tory, vol.  viii.  p.  81. 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  179 

by  angels,  according  to  the  legend.  The  same  series,  similarly 
treated,  ornamented  the  doors  of  the  old  Basilica  of  St.  Paul, 
executed  by  Greek  artists  of  the  tenth  century.  They  were 
fortunately  engraved  for  D'Agincourt's  "  Histoire  de  1'Art," 
before  they  were  destroyed  by  fire. 

Wherever  the  Apostles  appear  as  a  series,  we  expect,  of 
course,  some  degree  of  discriminating  propriety  of  character  in 
each  face  and  figure.  We  seek  it  when  they  merely  form  a 
part  of  the  general  scheme  of  significant  decoration  in  the 
architectural  arrangement  of  a  place  of  Avorship ;  we  seek  it 
with  more  reason  when  they  stand  before  us  a  series  of  devo- 
tional representations ;  and  still  more  when,  as  actors  in  some 
particular  scene,  they  are  supposed  to  be  animated  by  senti- 
ments called  forth  by  the  occasion,  and  modified  by  the 
individual  character.  By  what  test  shall  we  try  the  truth 
and  propriety  of  such  representations  ?  We  ought  to  know 
both  what  to  require  from  the  artist,  and  on  what  grounds  to 
require  it,  before  we  can  rest  satisfied. 

In  the  Gospel  histories  the  Apostles  are  consistently  and 
beautifully  distinguished  in  temper  and  bearing.  Their  char- 
acters, whether  exhibited  at  full  length,  or  merely  touched 
upon,  are  sustained  with  dramatic  truth.  The  mediaeval  le- 
gends, however  wild,  are,  as  far  as  character  goes,  in  harmony 
with  these  scriptural  portraits,  and  fill  up  the  outline  given. 
It  becomes  therefore  a  really  interesting  speculation  to  observe, 
how  far  this  variety  of  characteristic  expression  has  been  car- 
ried out  in  the  early  types,  how  far  attended  to,  or  neglected, 
by  the  great  painters,  since  the  revival  of  Art. 

ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL 

Lai.  SS.  Petrus  et  Paulus.     Ital.  San  Pietro  or  Piero,  San  Paolo. 
Fr.  S.  Pierre,  S.  Paul.     Spa.  San  Pedro,  San  Pablo.     (June  29 

and  30.) 

« 

I  have  already  observed,  that,  as  apostles  and  preachers  of 
the  Word,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  take  the  first  place.  Even 
during  their  lives,  a  superiority  was  accorded  to  them ;  and 
this  superiority,  as  the  acknowledged  heads  and  founders  of 
the  Christian  Church,  under  Christ,  has  been  allowed  down  to 
the  present  time.  The  precedence  is  by  common  consent  given 
St.  Peter ;  but  they  are  held  to  be  equal  in  faith,  in  merit, 
and  in  sanctity. 


180 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


The  early  Christian  Church  was  always  considered  under 
two  great  divisions ;  the  church  of  the  converted  Jews,  and 
the  church  of  the  Gentiles.  The  first  was  represented  by  St. 
Peter,  the  second  by  St.  Paul.  Standing  together  in  this  mu- 
tual relation,  they  represent  the  universal  Church  of  Christ ; 
hence  in  works  of  Art  they  are  seldom  separated,  and  are 
indispensable  in  all  ecclesiastical  decoration.  Their  proper 
place  is  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour,  or  of  the  Virgin  throned ; 
or  on  each  side  of  the  altar ;  or  on  each  side  of  the  arch  over 
the  choir.  In  any  case,  where  they  stand  together,  not  merely 
as  Apostles,  but  Founders,  their  place  is  next  after  the  Evan- 
gelists and  the  Prophets. 

Thus  seen  almost  everywhere  in  companionship,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  distinguish  them  from  each  other ;  for  St.  Peter 
does  not  always  bear  his  keys,  nor  St.  Paul  his  sword.  In 
the  earliest  examples,  these  attributes  are  wholly  omitted ; 
yet  I  scarcely  know  any  instance  in  which  a  distinct  type  of 
head  has  not  been  more  or  less  attended  to. 

The  ancient  Greek  type  of  the  head  of  St.  Peter,  "  the  Pilot 
of  the  Galilean  Lake,"  is  so  strongly 
characterized  as  to  have  the  air  of  a 
portrait.  It  is  either  taken  from  the 
description  of  Nicephorus,  so  often 
quoted,  or  his  description  is  taken  from 
some  very  ancient  representation  :  it 
certainly  harmonizes  with  all  our  pre- 
conceived notions  of  St.  Peter's  tem- 
perament and  character.  He  is  a  ro- 
bust old  man,  with  a  broad  forehead, 
and  rather  coarse  features,  an  open 
undaunted  countenance,  short  gray 
hair,  and  short  thick  beard,  curled, 
and  of  a  silvery  white  :  according  to 
the  descriptive  portrait  of  Nicephorus, 
he  had  red  weak  eyes,  —  a  peculiarity 
which  it  has  not  been  thought  neces* 
sary  to  preserve  in  his  effigies.  In 
some  early  pictures  he  is  bald  on  the 
top  of  the  head,  and  the  hair  grows 
thick  around  in  a  circle,  somewhat  like 
St.  Peter  (Greek  type)  the  Priestlv  tonsure  >  and  in  some 


ST.   PETER   AXD   ST.   PAUL  181 

examples  this  tonsure  has  the  form  of  a  triple  row  of  curls 
close  to  the. head,  a  kind  of  tiara.  A  curious  exception  to 
this  predominant,  almost  universal,  type  is  to  be  found  in 
Anglo-Saxon  Art,  where  St.  Peter  is  always  beardless,  and 
wears  the  tonsure  ;  so  that  but  for  the  keys,  suspended  to  a 
ring  on  his  finger,  one  might  take  him  for  an  elderly  monk. 
(  Vide  St.  Guthlac's  Book.  Ethelwold's  Benedictional.)  It  is 
a  tradition  that  the  Gentiles  shaved  the  head  of  St.  Peter 
in  order  to  make  him  an  object  of  derision,  and  that  this  is 
the  origin  of  the  priestly  tonsure. 

The  dress  of  St.  Peter  in  the  mosaics  and  Greek  pictures  is 
a  blue  tunic,  with  white  drapery  thrown  over  it,  but  in  general 
the  proper  colors  are  a  blue  or  green  tunic  with  yellow  drapery. 
On  the  early  sarcophagi,  and  in  the  most  ancient  church  mosaics, 
he  bears  merely  a  scroll  or  book,  and,  except  in  the  character  of 
the  head,  he  is  exactly  like  St.  Paul ;  a  little  later  we  find  him 
with  the  cross  in  one  hand,  and  the  Gospel  in  the  other.  The 
keys  in  his  hand  appear  as  his  peculiar  attribute  about  the 
eighth  century.  I  have  seen  him  with  one  great  key,  but-  in 
general  he  carries  two  keys,  one  of  gold  and  one  of  silver,  to 
absolve  and  to  bind ;  or,  according  to  another  interpretation, 
one  is  of  gold  and  one  of  iron,  opening  the  gates  of  heaven 
and  hell  :  occasionally,  but  rarely,  he  has  a  third  key,  express- 
ing the  dominion  over  heaven  and  earth  and  hell,  as  in  the 
mosaic  on  the  tomb  of  Oth  o  II.  (Lateran  Mus.). 

St.  Paul  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  St.  Peter,  in  features 
as  in  character.  There  must  have  existed  effigies  of  him  in 
very  early  times,  for  St.  Augustine  says  that  a  certain  Mar- 
cellina,  living  in  the  second  century,  preserved  in  her  Lararium, 
among  her  household  gods,  "  the  images  of  Homer,  Pythagoras, 
Jesus  Christ,  and  Paul  the  apostle."  Chrysostom  alludes  to  a 
portrait  of  Paul  which  hung  in  his  chamber,  but  unfortunately 
he  does  not  describe  it.  The  earliest  allusion  to  the  personal 
appearance  of  St.  Paul  occurs  in  Lucian,  where  he  is  styled,  in 
a  tone  of  mocking  disparagement,  "  the  bald-headed  Galilean 
with  a  hook-nose."  The  description  given  by  Nicephorus, 
founded,  we  may  presume,  on  tradition  and  on  the  existing 
portraits,  has  been  the  authority  followed  in  the  early  rep- 
resentations. According  to  the  ancient  tradition,  Paul  was 
a  man  of  small  and  meagre  stature,  with  an  aquiline  nose,  a 
high  forehead,  and  sparkling  eyes.  In  the  Greek  type  the 


182 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


face  is  long  and  oval,  the  nose  aquiline,  the  forehead  high 
and  bald,  the  hair  hrown,  the  heard  long,  flowing,  and  pointed, 
and  of  a  dark  hrown  (in  the  Greek  formula  it  is  said  that  his 

heard  shotild  he  grayish  —  I  recol- 
lect no  instance  of  St.  Paul  with  a 
gray  heard)  ;  his  dress  is  like  St. 
Peter's,  a  blue  tunic  and  white  man- 
tle ;  he  has  a  book  or  scroll  in  one 
hand,  sometimes  twelve  rolls,  which 
designate  his  epistles.  He  bears  the 
sword,  his  attribute  in  a  double 
sense  ;  it  signifies  the  manner  of  his 
martyrdom,  and  it  is  emblematical 
of  the  good  fight  fought  by  the  faith- 
ful Christian,  armed  with  "  the 
sword  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  the 
word  of  God."  (Ephes.  vi.  17.)  The 
life  of  St.  Paul,  after  his  conversion, 
was,  as  we  know,  one  long  spiritual 
combat,  —  "  perplexed,  but  not  in 
despair ;  cast  down,  but  not  de- 
stroyed." 

These  traditional  characteristic 
types  of  the  features  and  persons  of 
the  two  greatest  apostles  were  long 
adhered  to.  We  find  them  most 
strictly  followed  in  the  old  Greek 
mosaics,  in  the  early  Christian  sculpture,  and  the  early  pictures ; 
in  all  which  the  sturdy  dignity  and  broad  rustic  features  of  St. 
Peter,  and  the  elegant  contemplative  head  of  St.  Paul,  who 
looks  like  a  Greek  philosopher,  form  a  most  interesting  and 
suggestive  contrast.  But,  in  later  times,  the  old  types,  par- 
ticularly in  the  head  of  St.  Paul,  were  neglected  and  degraded. 
The  best  painters  took  care  not  to  deviate  wholly  from  the 
square  head  and  short  gray  beard  of  St.  Peter;  but,  from  the 
time  of  Sixtus  IV.,  we  find  substituted  for  the  head  of  St. 
Paul  an  arbitrary  representation,  which  varied  according  to  the 
model  chosen  by  the  artist  —  which  was  sometimes  a  Roman 
porter  or  a  German  boor ;  sometimes  the  antique  Jupiter  or 
the  bust  of  a  Greek  rhetorician. 

I  shall  now  give  some  examples,  in  chronological  order,  of 


St.  Paul  (Greek  type) 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  183 

the  two  great  Apostles  represented  together,  as  Founders  of 
the  Church. 

On  the  early  sarcophagi  (from  A.  D.  321  to  400),  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  stand  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour.  The  former 
bears  a  cross,  and  is  generally  on  the  left  hand  of  Christ.  The 
cross  given  to  Peter,  and  often  set  with  jewels,  is  supposed  to 
refer  to  the  passage  in  St.  John,  xxi.  19,  "  Signifying  hy  what 
death  he  should  die :  "  but  it  may  surely  bear  another  inter- 
pretation, i.  e.  the  spirit  of  Christianity  transmitted  to  all  na- 
tions by  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  Apostles.  St.  Paul  carries 
a  roll  of  writing  ;  he  has  a  very  high  bald  forehead :  in  other 
respects  the  two  Apostles  are  not  particularly  discriminated ; 
they  wear  the  classical  costume.  (Bottari,  Tab.  xxv.)  Simi- 
lar figures  of  Peter  and  Paul  occur  on  the  ancient  glass  drink- 
ing-vessels  and  lamps  preserved  in  the  Vatican ;  but  the 
workmanship  is  so  rude  that  they  are  merely  curiosities,  and 
cannot  be  cited  as  authorities. 

MOSAIC  (Rome,  A.  D.  443)  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  over 
the  arch  which  separates  the  sanctuary  from  the  nave.  We 
have  in  the  centre  a  throne,  on  which  lies  the  roll,  sealed  with 
seven  seals ;  above  the  throne  rises  a  cross  set  with  precious 
stones ;  on  each  side  of  the  throne,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ; 
they  have  no  attributes,  are  habited  in  classical  draperies,  and 
the  whole  representation  is  strictly  antique  in  style,  without  a 
trace  of  any  of  the  characteristics  of  Medieval  Art.  This  is 
the  oldest  representation  I  have  met  with  next  to  those  on  the 
sarcophagi. 

MOSAIC  (Rome,  A.  D.  526)  in  St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian,  on 
the  vault  of  the  apsis.  Christ  stands  in  the  centre,  sustained 
by  clouds  ;  His  right  hand  is  raised  in  the  attitude  of  one  who 
exhorts  (not  blessing,  as  is  the  usual  manner)  ;  the  left  hand 
holds  the  book  of  life  ;  at  His  feet  flows  the  river  Jordan,  the 
symbol  of  Baptism.  On  each  side,  but  lower  down  and  much 
smaller  in  size,  stand  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ;  they  seem  to 
present  St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian  to  the  Saviour.  Beyond 
these  again,  on  either  side,  stand  St.  Theodore  and  the  pope 
(Felix  I.)  who  dedicated  the  church.  Palm-trees,  and  a  Phce- 
nix  crowned  with  a  starry  glory,  emblems  of  Victory  and  Im- 
mortality, close  this  majestic  and  significant  composition  on 
each  side.  Here  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  dignified  figures, 


184  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

in  which  the  Greek  type  is  strongly  characterized  ;  they  wear 
long  white  mantles,  and  have  no  attributes. 

MOSAIC  (A.  D.  936)  on  the  tomb  of  Otho  II.  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  together,  rather  more  than  half  length,  and  above 
life  size.  St.  Peter  has  three  keys,  suspended  on  a  ring ;  St. 
Paul,  the  book  and  sword.  The  original  mosaic  is  preserved 
in  the  Vatican,  and  a  copy  is  in  the  Lateran.  This  relic  is,  as 
a  document,  invaluable. 

MOSAIC  (A.  D.  1216-1227)  in  the  apsis  of  the  old  basilica 
of  St.  Paul.  Christ  is  seated  on  a  throne,  with  the  cruciform 
glory  and  His  name  I  C.  X  C.:  the  right  hand  gives  the  ben- 
ediction in  the  Greek  form ;  He  holds  in  His  left  an  open 
book,  inscribed  VENITE  BENEDICTI  PATRIS  MEI  PERCIPITE 
REGNUM.  (Matt.  xxv.  34.)  On  the  left,  St.  Peter  with  his 
right  hand  raised  to  Christ,  and  an  open  scroll  in  his  left  hand, 
inscribed  TU  ES  CHRISTUS  FILIUS  DEI  vivi.  On  the  other 
side  of  Christ,  St.  Paul ;  his  right  hand  on  his  breast,  and  in 
his  left  a  scroll  with  these  words,  IN  NOMINE  JESU  OMNE 

GENU  FLECTATUR  CfELESTIUM  TERRESTRIUM  ET  INFERNO- 
RUM.  (Phil.  xi.  10.)  Beyond  St.  Peter  stands  his  brother 
St.  Andrew ;  and  beyond  St.  Paul  his  favorite  disciple  Luke. 
At  the  foot  of  the  throne  kneels  a  diminutive  figure  of  the 
Pope,  Honorius  III.,  by  whom  the  mosaic  was  dedicated. 
Palm-trees  close  the  composition  on  each  side  ;  underneath  runs 
the  frieze  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  previously  described. 

MOSAIC  (twelfth  century)  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale  at 
Palermo.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  seated  on  splendid 
thrones  on  each  side  of  the  tribune ;  St.  Peter  holds  in  his 
left  hand  a  book,  and  the  right,  which  gives  the  benediction, 
holds  also  the  two  keys :  over  his  head  is  inscribed,  SANCTUS 

PETRUS  PRINCEPS  APOSTOLORUM  CUI  TRADIT.E  SUNT  CLAVES 

REGNI  CCELORUM.  St.  Paul  holds  the  sword  with  the  point 
upwards  like  a  sceptre,  and  the  book  as  usual :  the  intellec- 
tual Greek  character  of  the  head  is  strongly  discriminated. 
The  inscription  is  SANCTUS  PAULUS  PR^DICATOR  VERITA- 

TIS  ET  DOCTOR  GENTIUM  GENT1. 

Among  the  rich  and  curious  bas-reliefs  in  front  of  the 
church  of  St.  Trophime  at  Aries,  we  have  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  seated  together  receiving  the  souls  of  the  just.  Each 
has  two  souls  in  his  lap,  and  the  Archangel  Michael  is  bring- 
ing another. 


ST.   PETER  AND   ST.   PAUL  185 

In  pictures,  their  proper  place,  as  I  have  observed,  is  on 
each  side  of  the  throne  of  the  Redeemer,  or  on  each  side  of 
the  Virgin  and  Child :  sometimes  they  are  standing  together, 
or  reading  in  the  same  book. 

This  must  suffice  for  the  devotional  treatment  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul,  when  represented  as  joint  founders  and  patrons 
of  the  universal  Christian  Church.  Before  I  notice  those  his- 
torical subjects  in  which  they  appear  together,  I  have  to  say  a 
few  words  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  treated  separately 
and  distinctly.  And  first  of  St.  Peter. 

The  various  events  of  the  life  of  St.  Peter  are  recorded  in 
the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  so  minutely,  that  they  may  be 
presumed  to  be  familiar  to  all  readers.  From  these  we  may 
deduce  his  character,  remarkable  for  fervor  and  energy  rather 
than  sustained  power.  His  traditional  and  legendary  history 
is  full  of  incidents,  miracles,  and  wonderful  and  picturesque 
passages.  His  importance  and  popularity,  considered  as 
Prince  of  the  Apostles  and  Founder  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
have  extended  with  the  influence  of  that  powerful  Church 
of  which  he  is  the  head  and  representative,  and  multiplied, 
almost  to  infinitude,  pictures  and  effigies  of  him  in  his  indi- 
vidual character,  as  well  as  historical  representations  of  his 
life  and  actions,  wherever  his  paramount  dignity  is  admitted. 

It  struck  me,  when  wandering  over  the  grand  old  churches 
of  Ravenna,  where  the  ecclesiastical  mosaics  are  the  most  an- 
cient that  exist,  and  still  in  wonderful  preservation,  that  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  do  not  often  appear,  at  least  are  in  no  re- 
spect distinguished  from  the  other  apostles.  Ravenna,  in  the 
fifth  century,  did  not  look  to  Rome  for  her  saints.  On  the 
other  hand,  among  the  earliest  of  the  Roman  mosaics,  St.  Peter 
is  sometimes  found  sustaining  the  throne  of  Christ,  without 
his  companion  St.  Paul ;  as  in  S.  Maria-in-Trastevere,  S.  Maria 
Nuova,  and  others.  At  Rome,  St.  Peter  is  the  Saint,  the 
Santissimo.  The  secession  of  the  Protestant  Church  dimmed 
his  glory  as  Prince  of  the  Apostles  and  universal  Saint ;  he 
fell  into  a  kind  of  disrepute  as  identified  with  the  See  of 
Rome,  which  exposed  his  effigies,  in  England  and  Scotland 
particularly,  to  a  sweeping  destruction.  Those  were  disputa- 
tious days,  and  Peter,  the  affectionate,  enthusiastic,  devoted, 


186 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


but  somewhat  rash  apostle,  veiled  his  head  to  the  intellectual, 
intrepid,  subtle  philosopher  Paul. 

Let  us  now  see  how  Art  has  placed  before  us  the  sturdy 
Prince  of  the  Apostles. 

I  have  already  mentioned  the  characteristic  type  which  be- 
longs to  him,  and  his  prevalent  attributes  —  the  key,  the  cross, 
the  book.  When  he  figures  among  the 
disciples  in  the  Gospel  stories,  he  some- 
times holds  the  fish  as  the  symbol  of  his 
original  vocation  :  if  the  fish  be  given 
to  him  in  single  devotional  figures,  it 
signifies  also  Christianity,  or  the  rite  of 
Baptism. 

The  figures  of  St.  Peter  standing,  as 
Apostle  and  Patron  Saint,  with  book 
and  keys,  are  of  such  perpetual  occur- 
rence as  to  defy  all  attempts  to  particu- 
larize  them,  and  so  familiar  as  to  need 
(f/  /iff  no  further  illustration.  One  of  the  finest 

I  have  ever  seen  is  the  "  St.  Pierre  au 
Donateur,"  by  Gaudenzio  Ferrari ;  hold- 
ing his  keys  (both  of  gold),  he  presents 
a  kneeling  votary,  a  man  of  middle  age, 
who  probably  bore  his  name.  The  head 
of  St.  Peter  is  very  characteristic,  and 
has  an  energetic  pleading  expression,  al- 
most demanding  what  he  requires  for 
his  votary.  The  whole  picture  is  ex- 
tremely fine.  (Turin  Gallery.) 

Representations  of  him  in  his  pecul- 
iar character  of  Head  and  Founder  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
first  universal  bishop,  are  less  common.  He  is  seated  on  a 
throne  ;  one  hand  is  raised  in  the  act  of  benediction ;  in  the 
other  he  holds  the  keys,  and  sometimes  a  book  or  scroll,  in- 
scribed with  the  text,  in  Latin,  "  Thou  art  Peter,  and  on  this 
rock  have  I  built  my  Church."  This  subject  of  the  throned 
St.  Peter  is  very  frequent  in  the  older  schools.  The  well- 
known  picture  by  Giotto,  painted  for  Cardinal  Stefaneschi,  now 
in  the  sacristy  of  the  Vatican,  is  very  fine,  simple,  and  solemn. 
In  a  picture  by  Cima  da  Conegliano,  St.  Peter  is  not  only 


St.  Peter  (Vischer) 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL 


187 


throned,  but  wears  the  triple  tiara  as  Pope  ;  the  countenance 
is  particularly  earnest,  fervent,  almost  fiery  in  expression :  the 
keys  lie  at  his  feet ;  on  one  side  stands  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
on  the  other  St.  Paul.  (Brera,  Milan.) 

As  a  deviation  from  the  usual  form  of  this  subject,  I  must 
mention  an  old  bas-relief,  full  of  character,  and  significantly 
appropriate  to  its  locality 
—  the  church  of  San  Pie- 
tro-in-Vincoli,  at  Rome. 
St.  Peter,  enthroned,  holds 
in  one  hand  the  keys  and 
the  Gospel ;  with  the  other 
he  presents  his  chains  to  a 
kneeling  angel  ;  this  unus- 
ual treatment  is  very  po- 
etical and  suggestive. 

There  are  standing  fig- 
ures of  St.  Peter  wearing 
the  papal  tiara,  and  bran- 
dishing his  keys,  —  as  in  a 
picture  by  Cola  dell'  Ama- 
trice.1  And  I  should  think 
Milton  had  some  such  pic- 
ture in  his  remembrance 
when  he  painted  his  St. 
Peter  :  - 

Last  came  and  last  did  go 
The  pilot  of  the  Galilean  Lake; 
Two  massy  keys  he  bore  of  metals 

twain, 
(The  golden  opes,  the  iron  shuts 

amain), 
He  shook  his  mitred  locks,  and 

stern  bespake.  St.  Peter  as  Pope  (Cola  dell'  Amatrice) 

When,  in  devotional  pictures,  St.  Peter  is  accompanied  by 
another  apostle  with  no  distinctive  attributes,  we  may  suppose 
it  to  be  St.  Mark,  who  was  his  interpreter,  companion,  and 
amanuensis  at  Rome.  According  to  an  early  tradition,  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Mark  was  written  down  from  the  dictation  of 
St.  Peter.2  In  a  miniature  frontispiece  to  St.  Mark's  Gospel, 

1  [Engraved  in  the  work  of  Rosini,  who  locates  it  in  the  Fesch  Gallery.] 

2  "What  St.  Clement  says  is  to  this  purpose:  that  St.  Peter's  hearers  at 


188  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

the  evangelist  is  seated  writing,  and  St.  Peter  stands  opposite,  as 
if  dictating.  In  a  picture  by  Angelico  [Uffizi,  Florence],  Peter 
is  preaching  from  a  pulpit  to  a  crowd  of  people  :  Mark,  seated 
on  one  side,  is  diligently  taking  down  his  words.  In  a  very 
tine  picture  by  Bonvicino  [Moretto]  they  stand  together  ;  St. 
Peter  is  reading  from  a  book ;  St.  Mark  holds  a  scroll  and  ink- 
horn  ;  he  is  submitting  to  St.  Peter  the  Gospel  he  has  just 
penned,  and  which  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  apostle.1 
(Brera,  Milan.) 

Lastly,  a  magnificent  Venetian  picture  represents  St.  Peter 
throned  as  bishop,  Avith  an  earnest  and  rather  stern  counte- 
nance ;  he  holds  a  book  in  his  hand ;  two  angels  with  musical 
instruments  are  seated  on  the  steps  of  his  throne :  on  his  right 
hand  stand  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Jerome  as  cardinal ;  on 
his  left  St.  Ambrose ;  while  St.  Mark  bends  over  a  book,  as 
if  reading  to  this  majestic  auditory.2  (Gian  Bellini :  Venice. 
S.  M.  de'  Frari.) 

Those  scenes  and  incidents  related  in  the  Gospels  in  which 
St.  Peter  is  a  principal  or  conspicuous  figure,  I  shall  enlarge 
upon  when  treating  of  the  life  of  Christ,  and  will  only  indicate 
a  few  of  them  here,  as  illustrating  the  manner  in  which  St. 
Peter  is  introduced  and  treated  in  such  subjects. 

We  have,  first,  the  Calling  of  Peter  and  Andrew  in  a  pic- 
ture by  Basaiti  (Vienna  Gallery),  where  the  two  brothers  are 
kneeling  at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour ;  the  fishing  boats  and  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth  in  the  background  :3  and  in  the  beautiful 
fresco  by  Ghirlandajo  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  where  a  number 
of  contemporary  personages  are  introduced  as  spectators.  St. 
Andrew  presenting  St.  Peter  to  our  Saviour  (as  in  a  picture 
'by  Cavallucci,  in  the  Vatican),  is  another  version  of  the  same 

Rome  were  desirous  of  having  his  sermons  writ  down  for  their  use;  that  they 
made  their  request  to  Mark  to  leave  them  a  written  memorial  of  the  doctrine 
they  had  received  by  word  of  mouth;  that  they  did  not  desist  from  their  en- 
treaties till  they  had  prevailed  upon  him ;  and  St.  Peter  confirmed  that  writing 
by  his  authority,  that  it  might  be  read  in  the  churches."  Lardner  [Credibil- 
ity of  the  Compel  History],  vol.  i.  p.  250. 

1  [No  work  of  this  description  appears  to  be  mentioned  under  Moretto's 
name,  either  in  the  authoritative  works  on  Art  or  in  the  Brera  catalogue.] 

2  [Diligent  search  in  the  authorities  on  Venetian  Art  brings  to  light  no 
picture  of  this  description  ascribed  to  Bellini.     St.  Peter  Enthroned  is  the 
subject  of  a  painting  by  Basaiti  in  S.  Pietro  di  Castello,  Venice,  and  of  one  by 
Palma  Vecchio  in  the  Venice  Academy]. 

3  [Catalogued  as  The  Calling  of  the  Sons  of  Zebedee :  James  and  John.] 


ST.   PETER  AND   ST.   PAUL  189 

subject ;  or  St.  Andrew  is  seen  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  while 
St.  Peter  is  sitting  on  the  edge  of  the  boat,  or  descending  from 
it  in  haste. 

"  Christ  Walking  on  the  Sea  "  is  a  familiar  and  picturesque 
subject,  not  to  be  mistaken.  The  most  ancient  and  most  cele- 
brated representation  is  Giotto's  mosaic  (A.  D.  1298),  now 
placed  in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter's,  over  the  arch  opposite  to 
the  principal  door.  The  sentiment  in  the  composition  of  this 
subject  is,  generally,  "  Lord,  help  me ;  or  I  perish ; "  St. 
Peter  is  sinking,  and  Christ  is  stretching  out  His  hand  to  save 
him.  It  is  considered  as  a  type  of  the  Church  in  danger, 
assailed  by  enemies,  and  saved  by  the  miraculous  interposition 
of  the  Redeemer ;  and  in  this  sense  must  the  frequent  repre- 
sentations in  churches  be  understood. 

In  the  "  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes,"  St.  Peter  is  usually 
on  his  knees  looking  up  with  awe  and  gratitude  :  —  "  Depart 
from  me,  0  Lord  !  for  I  am  a  sinful  man."  The  composition 
of  Raphael  (the  cartoon  at  [South  Kensington])  is  just  what 
we  should  seek  for  in  Raphael,  a  masterpiece  of  dramatic  ex- 
pression, —  the  significant,  the  poetical,  the  miraculous  pre- 
dominating. The  composition  of  Rubens,  at  Malines,  which 
deserves  the  next  place,  should  be  looked  at  in  contrast,  as 
an  instance  of  the  picturesque  and  vigorous  treatment  equally 
characteristic  of  the  painter,  —  all  life  and  reality,  even  to 
the  glittering  fish  which  tumble  in  the  net.  "  St.  Peter  find- 
ing the  tribute  money  "  is  a  subject  I  have  seldom  met  with ; 
the  motif  is  simple,  and  not  to  be  mistaken. 

In  all  the  scenes  of  the  life  of  our  Saviour  in  which  the 
Apostles  are  assembled,  —  in  the  Transfiguration,  in  the  Last 
Supper,  in  the  "  Washing  the  Feet  of  the  Disciples,"  in  the 
scene  of  the  agony  and  the  betrayal  of  Christ,  —  St.  Peter  is 
introduced  as  a  more  or  less  prominent  figure,  but  always  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  other  Apostles.  'In  the  third  of 
these  subjects,  the  washing  of  the  feet,  St.  Peter  generally 
looks  up  at  Christ  with  an  expression  of  humble  expostulation, 
his  hands  on  his  head :  the  sentiment  is  —  "  Not  my  feet 
only,  but  my  hands  and  my  head." 

In  the  scene  of  the  betrayal  of  Christ,  St.  Peter  cutting  off 
the  ear  of  Malchus  is  sometimes  a  too  prominent  group ;  and  I 
remember  an  old  German  print  in  which  St.  Peter  having  cut 
off  the  ear,  our  Lord  bends  down  to  replace  it.  (Bartsch  [Le 
Peintre  Graveur],  vol.  vi.  p.  92.) 


190 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


"  St.  Peter  Denying  the  Saviour  "  is  always  one  of  the  sub- 
jects in  the  series  of  the  Passion  of  Christ.  It  occurs  fre- 
quently on  the  ancient  sarcophagi  as  the  symbol  of  repentance, 
and  is  treated  with  classical  and  sculptural  simplicity,  the 
cock  being  always  introduced,  as  in  the  illustration :  it  is  here 
to  be  understood  as  a  general  emblem  of  human  weakness  and 
repentance.  As  an  action  separately,  or  as  one  of  the  series 
of  the  life  and  actions  of  Peter,  it  has  not  been  often  painted ; 
it  seems  to  have  been  avoided  in  general  by  the  early  Italian 
painters  as  derogatory  to  the  character  and  dignity  of  the 
Apostle.  The  only  examples  I  can  recollect  are  in  the  later 
Italian  and  Flemish  schools.  Teniers  has  adopted  it  as  a 


Repentance  of  St.  Peter  (Bas-relief,  third  century) 

vehicle  for  a  guardroom  scene ;  soldiers  playing  at  cards, 
bright  armor,  etc.  [Louvre].  Rembrandt  has  taken  it  as  a 
vehicle  for  a  fine  artificial  light  [Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg]  ; 
and,  for  the  same  reason,  the  Caravaggio  school  delighted  in 
it.  The  maiden,  whose  name  in  the  old  traditions  is  Balilla, 
is  always  introduced  with  a  look  and  gesture  of  reproach,  and 
the  cock  is  often  perched  in  the  background. 

"  Christ  turned  and  looked  upon  Peter :  "  of  this  beautiful 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL 


191 


Repentance  of  St.  Peter  (Mosaic) 

subject,  worthy  of  Eaphael  himself,  I  can  remember  no  in- 
stance. 

The  "  Repentance  of  Peter "  is  a  subject  seldom  treated 
in  the  earlier  schools  of  Italy,  but  frequently  by  the  later 
painters,  and  particularly  by  the  Bologna  school ;  in  some 
instances  most  beautifully.  It  was  a  subject  peculiarly  suited 
to  the  genius  of  Guercino,  who  excelled  in  the  expression  of 
profound  rather  than  elevated  feeling. 

There  is  a  manner  of  representing  the  repentance  of  Peter 
which  seems  peculiar  to  Spanish  Art,  and  is  more  ideal  than 
is  usual  with  that  school.  Christ  is  bound  to  a  column  and 
crowned  with  thorns ;  St.  Peter  kneels  before  Him  in  an 
attitude  of  the  deepest  anguish  and  humiliation,  and  appears 
to  be  supplicating  forgiveness.  Except  in  the  Spanish  school, 
I  have  never  met  with  this  treatment.  The  little  picture 
by  Murillo  is  an  exquisite  example  (Le  Christ  h  la  Colonne. 
Louvre)  ;  and  in  the  Spanish  Gallery  are  two  others,  by 
Pedro  de  Cordova  and  Juan  Juanes :  in  the  former,  St. 
Peter  holds  a  pocket  handkerchief  with  which  he  has  been 
wiping  his  eyes,  and  the  cock  is  perched  on  the  column  to 
which  our  Saviour  is  bound. 


192  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

Another  ideal  treatment  we  find  in  a  picture  by  Guercino; 
St.  Peter  is  weeping  bitterly,  and  opposite  to  him  the  Virgin 
is  seated  in  motionless  grief. 

Half-length  figures  of  St.  Peter  looking  up  with  an  expres- 
sion of  repentant  sorrow,  and  wringing  his  hands,  are  of 
frequent  occurrence,  more  especially  in  the  later  followers 
of  the  Bologna  and  Neapolitan  schools  of  the  seventeenth 
century :  Ribera,  Lanfranco,  Caravaggio,  and  Valentin.  In 
most  of  these  instances,  the  total  absence  of  ideal  or  elevated 
sentiment  is  striking ;  any  old  bearded  beggar  out  of  the 
streets,  who  could  cast  up  his  eyes  and  look  pathetic,  served 
as  a  model. 

I  recollect  no  picture  of  the  Crucifixion  in  which  St.  Peter 
is  present. 

"  The  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to  Peter "  and  "  The  Charge 
to  Peter "  (Feed  my  sheep),  either  in  separate  pictures  or 
combined  into  one  subject,  have  been,  of  course,  favorite 
themes  in  a  church  which  founds  its  authority  on  these  par- 
ticular circumstances.  The  bas-relief  over  the  principal  door 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  represents  the  two  themes  in  one : 
Christ  delivers  the  keys  to  Peter,  and  the  sheep  are  standing 
by.  In  the  panels  of  the  bronze  doors  beneath  (A.  D.  1431), 
we  have  the  chain  of  thought  and  incident  continued ;  Peter 
delivers  the  emblematical  keys  to  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 

It  is  curious  that,  while  the  repentance  of  Peter  is  a 
frequent  subject  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter  occurs  but  once.  Christ,  as  a 
beardless  youth,  presents  to  Peter  two  keys  laid  crosswise  one 
over  the  over.  Peter,  in  whose  head  the  traditional  type  is 
most  distinctly  marked,  has  thrown  his  pallium  over  his  out- 
stretched hands,  for,  according  to  the  antique  ceremonial,  of 
which  the  early  sculpture  and  mosaics  afford  us  so  many  exam- 
ples, things  consecrated  could  only  be  touched  with  covered 
hands.  This  singular  example  is  engraved  in  Bottari  (Tab. 
xxi.).  An  example  of  beautiful  and  solemn  treatment  in 
painting  is  Perugino's  fresco  in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  It  con- 
tains twenty-one  figures ;  the  conception  is  quite  ideal,  the 
composition  regular  even  to  formality,  yet  striking  and  dra- 
matic. In  the  centre,  Peter,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  receives 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  193 

the  keys  from  the  hand  of  the  Saviour ;  the  apostles  and  dis- 
ciples are  arranged  on  each  side  behind  Christ  and  St.  Peter ; 
in  the  background  is  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  —  a  double 
allegory:  "Destroy  this  temple,  I  will  build  it  up  in  three 
iays  :  "  and  also,  perhaps,  alluding  to  the  building  of  the 
thapel  by  Sixtus  IV. 

In  Raphael's  cartoon  [South  Kensington  Museum]  the  scene 
is  an  open  plain  ;  Christ  stands  on  the  right ;  in  front,  St. 
Peter  kneels,  with  the  keys  in  his  hand ;  Christ  extends  one 
hand  to  Peter,  and  with  the  other  points  to  a  flock  of 
sheep  in  the  background.  The  introduction  of  the  sheep  into 
this  subject  has  been  criticised  as  at  once  too  literal  and  too 
allegorical,  —  a  too  literal  transcript  of  the  words,  a  too  alle- 
gorical version  of  the  meaning ;  but  I  do  not  see  how  the 
words  of  our  Saviour  could  have  been  otherwise  rendered  in 
painting,  which  must  speak  to  us  through  sensible  objects. 
The  other  apostles  standing  behind  Peter  show  in  each  counte- 
nance the  different  manner  in  which  they  are  affected  by  the 
words  of  the  Saviour. 

By  Gian  Bellini : 1  a  beautiful  picture  (Madrid  Gallery)  : 
St.  Peter  kneeling,  half  length,  receives  the  keys  from  Jesus 
Christ,  seated  on  a  throne.  Behind  St.  Peter  stand  the  three 
Christian  Graces,  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity.  Poussin  has 
taken  this  subject  in  his  series  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  to 
represent  the  sacrament  of  Ordination  (Bridgewater  Gallery, 
London).  In  this  instance,  again,  the  two  themes  are  united; 
and  we  must  also  remember,  that  the  allegorical  representation 
of  the  disciples  and  followers  of  Christ  as  sheep  looking  up 
to  be  fed  is  consecrated  by  the  practice  of  the  earliest  schools 
of  Christian  Art.  Rubens  has  rendered  the  subject  very 
simply,  in  a  picture  containing  only  the  two  figures,  Christ 
and  St.  Peter  (Cathedral  at  Malines)  ;  and  again  with  five  fig- 
ures, less  good  (Gal.  of  the  Hague).  Numerous  other  examples 
might  be  given  ;  but  the  subject  is  one  that,  however  treated, 
cannot  be  easily  mistaken. 

A  very  ideal  version  of  this  subject  is  where  St.  Peter 
kneels  at  the  feet  of  the  Madonna,  and  the  Infant  Christ, 
bending  from  her  lap,  presents  the  keys  to  him ;  as  in  a  sin- 

1  [No  picture  of  this  description  appears  to  be  mentioned  under  Bel- 
lini's name,  either  in  the  authoritative  works  on  Art  or  in  the  Madrid  cata- 
logue.] 


194 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


Madonna  and  Child  with  Saints  (Crivelli) 

gularly  fine  and  large  composition  by  Crivelli,1  and  in  another 
by  Andrea  Salaino.  Another,  very  beautiful  and  curious,  was 
in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Bromley  2  of  Wootten.3 

After  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  personal  history  of 
St.  Peter  is  mingled  first  with  that  of  St.  John,  and  afterwards 
with  that  of  St.  Paul. 

"  Peter  and  John  healing  the  lame  man  at  the  gate  called 
Beautiful  "  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  finest  of  [Raphael's] 
cartoons  at  [South  Kensington].  Perin  del  Vaga,  Niccolo  Pous- 
sin,  and  others  less  renowned,  have  also  treated  it;  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of  much  contrast  and  dramatic  effect. 

1  This  picture,  formerly  in  the  Brera,  is  now  in  [the  Berlin  Gallery.]     It 
is   the   finest   and   most   characteristic   specimen   of   the   master   I   have  ever 
seen. 

2  [The  Bromley  collection  was  sold  in  1803.] 

3  It  is  signed  MEDULA,  and  attributed  to  Giulio  della  Mendula  ;  a  painter 
(except  through  this  picture)  unknown  to  me. 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  195 

"  The  sick  are  brought  out  and  placed  in  the  shadow  of 
Peter  and  John  that  they  may  be  healed,"  by  Masaccio,  in  the 
Brancacci  Chapel  [Carmine],  Florence. 

"  Peter  Preaching  to  the  Early  Converts  :  "  the  two  most 
beautiful  compositions  I  have  seen  are  the  simple  group  of 
Masaccio  J  and  another  by  Le  Sueur,  full  of  variety  and  senti- 
ment. 

"  Peter  and  John  communicate  the  Holy  Ghost  by  laying 
their  hands  on  the  Disciples,"  by  Vasari  (Berlin  Gal.).  I  do 
not  well  remember  this  picture.2 

The  Vision  of  St.  Peter :  three  angels  sustain  the  curtain  or 
sheet  which  contains  the  various  forbidden  animals,  as  pigs, 
rabbits,  etc.  (as  in  a  print  after  Guercino). 

"  Peter  Baptizes  the  Centurion."  (Very  appropriately  placed 
in  the  baptistery  of  the  Vatican.)  St.  Peter  meets  the  Centu- 
rion ;  he  blesses  the  family  of  the  Centurion.  All  common- 
place versions  of  very  interesting  and  picturesque  subjects. 

"  The  Death  of  Ananias."  Raphael's  cartoon  of  this  awful 
scene  is  a  masterpiece  of  dramatic  and  scenic  power;  never 
was  a  story  more  admirably  and  completely  told  in  painting. 
Those  who  had  to  deal  with  the  same  subject,  as  if  to  avoid  a 
too  close  comparison  with  his  unapproachable  excellence,  have 
chosen  the  death  of  Sapphira  as  the  motif;  as,  for  example, 
Niccolo  Poussin  (Louvre). 

"  Dorcas  or  Tabitha  Restored  to  Life."  One  of  the  finest 
and  most  effective  of  Guercino's  pictures,  now  in  the  Palazzo 
Pitti ;  the  simple  dignity  of  the  apostle,  and  the  look  of  sick 
amazement  in  the  face  of  the  woman  restored  to  consciousness, 
show  how  strong  Guercino  could  be  when  he  had  to  deal  with 
natural  emotions  of  no  elevated  kind.  The  same  subject,  by 
Costanzi,  is  among  the  great  mosaics  in  St.  Peter's.  "  The  Death 
of  Dorcas,"  by  Le  Sueur,  is  a  beautiful  composition.  She  lies 
extended  on  a  couch  ;  St.  Peter  and  two  other  apostles  ap- 
proach the  foot  of  it :  the  poor  widows,  weeping,  show  to  St. 
Peter  the  garments  which  Dorcas  had  made  for  them.  (Acts 
ix.  39.) 

1  [Critics  are  divided  in  their  opinion  as  to  which  of  the  Branoacci  Chapel 
frescoes  are  Masaccio's  and  which  Masolino's.    Peter  Preaching  is  attributed 
by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to  the  former,  by  Sir  Henry  Layard  and  Wolt- 
mann  and  Woermann  to  the  latter.] 

2  [The  1891  catalogue  of  the  Berlin  Gallery  contains  no  work  attributed  to 
Vasari.] 


196 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


The  imprisonment  of  Peter  and  his  deliverance  by  the 
Angel  were  incidents  so  important,  and  offer  such  obvious 
points  of  dramatic  effect,  that  they  have  been  treated  in  every 
possible  variety  of  style  and  sentiment,  from  the  simple  for- 
mality of  the  early  mosaics,  where  the  two  figures  —  Peter 

sitting  on  a  stool,  lean- 
ing his  head  on  his 
hand,  and  the  Angel  at 
his  side  —  express  the 
story  like  a  vision,1 
down  to  the  scenic 
and  architectural  com- 
positions of  Steenwick, 
where,  amid  a  vast 
perspective  of  gloomy 
vaults  and  pillars,  a 
diminutive  St.  Peter, 
with  an  Angel  or  a  sen- 
tinel placed  somewhere 
in  the  foreground,  just 
serves  to  give  the  pic- 
ture a  name.2 

Some  examples  of 
this  subject  are  of 
•great  celebrity. 

Masaccio,  in  the  fres- 
coes of  the  Brancacci 
Chapel,  has  represented 
Peter  in  prison  looking 
through  his  grated  win- 
dow, and  Paul  outside 
communing  with  him.3 
(The  noble  figure  of  St. 
Paul  in  this  fresco  was 
imitated  by  Raphael  in 
the  "St.  Paul  Preach- 


St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  (Filippino  Lippi) 


1  As  in  the  Greek  mosaics  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale,  near  Palermo. 

2  Several  such  pictures  are  in  the  royal  collections  at  Windsor  and  Hamp- 
ton Court. 

8  [This  fresco,  together  with  the  Liberation  of  Peter,  are  attributed  by  Sir 
Henry  Layard  to  Filippino  Lippi.  Vide  Layard's  revision  of  Kugler's  Hand- 
book, p.  143.] 


ST.   PETEK  AND   ST.   PAUL  197 

ing  at  Athens.")  In  the  next  compartment  of  the  series, 
Masaccio  has  given  us  the  Angel  leading  forth  Peter,  while 
the  guard  sleeps  at  the  door  :  he  sleeps  as  one  oppressed  with 
an  unnatural  sleep.  Raphael's  fresco  in  the  Vatican  is  not 
one  of  his  best,  but  he  has  seized  on  the  obvious  point  of 
effect,  both  as  to  light  and  grouping ;  and  we  have  three 
separate  moments  of  the  same  incident,  which  yet  combine 
most  happily  into  one  grand  scene.  Thus  in  the  centre,  over 
the  window,  we  see  through  a  grating  the  interior  of  the 
prison,  where  St.  Peter  is  sleeping  between  two  guards,  who, 
leaning  on  their  weapons,  are  sunk  in  a  deep  charmed  slum- 
ber ; 1  an  angel,  whose  celestial  radiance  fills  the  dungeon  with 
a  flood  of  light,  is  in  the  act  of  waking  the  apostle ;  on  the 
right  of  the  spectator,  the  angel  leads  the  apostle  out  of  the 
prison ;  two  guards  are  sleeping  on  the  steps :  on  the  left, 
the  soldiers  are  roused  from  sleep,  and  one  with  a  lighted 
torch  appears  to  be  giving  the  alarm ;  the  crescent  moon 
faintly  illumines  the  background. 

The  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  has  always  been  considered  as 
figurative  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Church  ;  and  the  two 
other  frescoes  of  this  room,  the  Heliodorus  and  the  Attila, 
bear  the  same  interpretation.  It  is  worth  while  to  compare 
this  dramatic  composition  of  Raphael  with  others  wherein  the 
story  is  merely  a  vehicle  for  artificial  effects  of  light,  as  in  a 
picture  by  Gerard  Honthorst ;  or  treated  like  a  supernatural 
vision,  as  by  that  poet,  Rembrandt. 

Those  historical  subjects  in  which  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
figure  together  will  be  noticed  in  the  life  of  St.  Paul. 

I  come  now  to  the  legendary  stories  connected  with  St.  Peter  ; 
—  an  inexhaustible  source  of  popular  and  pictorial  interest. 

Peter  was  at  Jerusalem  as  late  a"s  A.  D.  52 ;  then  at  An- 
tioch ;  also  in  Babylon  :  according  to  the  most  ancient  testimo- 
nies he  was  at  Rome  about  A.  D.  63 ;  but  the  tradition  that  he 
resided  as  bishop  in  the  city  of  Rome  for  twenty-five  years, 
first  related  by  Jerome,  seems  questionable.2  Among  the 

1  Moore  makes  a  characteristic  remark  on  this  fresco;  he  is  amazed  at  the 
pelf-denial  of  the  painter  who  could  cross  this  fine  group  with  the  black  iron 
bars  which  represent  the  prison. 

2  Some  Protestant  writers  have  set  aside  St.  Peter's  ministry  at  Rome  as 
altogether  apocryphal;  but  Gieseler,  an  author  by  no  means  credulous,  con- 


198  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

legendary  incidents  which  marked  his  sojourn  in  Rome,  the 
first  and  the  most  important  is  the  story  of  Simon  Magus. 

Simon,  a  famous  magician  among  the  Jews,  had  astonished 
the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem  by  his  wonderful  feats ;  but  his 
inventions  and  sorceries  were  overcome  by  the  real  miracles  of 
Peter,  as  the  Egyptian  magi  had  been  conquered  by  Aaron. 
He  offered  the  apostles  money  to  buy  the  secret  of  their  power, 
which  Peter  rejected  with  indignation.  St.  Augustine  tells 
us,  as  a  characteristic  trait  of  the  fiery-spirited  apostle,  that 
"  if  he  had  fallen  on  the  traitor  Simon,  he  would  certainly 
have  torn  him  to  pieces  with  his  teeth."  The  magician,  van- 
quished by  a  superior  power,  flung  his  books  into  the  Dead 
Sea,  broke  his  wand,  and  fled  to  Rome,  where  he  became  a 
great  favorite  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and  afterwards  of 
Nero.  Peter,  bent  on  counteracting  the  wicked  sorceries  of 
Simon,  followed  him  to  Rome.  About  two  years  after  his 
arrival,  he  was  joined  there  by  the  Apostle  Paul.  Simon 
Magus  having  asserted  that  he  was  himself  a  god,  and  could 
raise  the  dead,  Peter  and  Paul  rebuked  his  impiety,  and  chal- 
lenged him  to  a  trial  of  skill  in  presence  of  the  emperor. 
The  arts  of  the  magician  failed  ;  Peter  and  Paul  restored  the 
youth  to  life :  and  on  many  other  occasions  Simon  was  van- 
quished and  put  to  shame  by  the  miraculoifs  power  of  the 
apostles.  At  length  he  undertook  to  fly  up  to  heaven  in  sight 
of  the  emperor  and  the  people ;  and,  crowned  with  laurel,  and 
supported  by  demons,  he  flung  himself  from  a  tower,  and  ap- 
peared for  a  while  to  float  thus  in  the  air  :  but  St.  Peter,  fall- 
ing on  his  knees,  commanded  the  demons  to  let  go  their  hold, 
and  Simon,  precipitated  to  the  ground,  was  dashed  to  pieces. 

This  romantic  legend,  so  popular  in  the  middle  ages,  is 
founded  on  some  antique  traditions  not  wholly  unsupported 
by  historical  testimony. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  existed  in  the  first  century 
a  Simon,  a  Samaritan,  a  pretender  to  divine  authority  and 
supernatural  powers;  who,  for  a  time,  had  many  followers; 
who  stood  in  a  certain  relation  to  Christianity ;  and  who  may 
have  held  some  opinions  more  or  less  similar  to  those  enter- 

siders  that  the  historical  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the  tradition.  (Vide  Text- 
book of  Eccles.  Hist.)  This  is  the  more  satisfactory,  because,  even  to  Prot- 
estants, it  is  not  agreeable  to  be  at  Rome  and  to  be  obliged  to  reject  certain 
associations  which  add  to  the  poetical,  as  well  as  to  the  religious,  interest  of 
the  place. 


ST.    PETER   AND   ST.    PAUL  199 

tained.  by  the  most  famous  heretics  of  the  early  ages,  the 
Gnostics.  Irenaeus  calls  this  Simon  the  father  of  all  heretics. 
"  All  those,"  he  says,  "  who  in  any  way  corrupt  the  truth,  or 
mar  the  preaching  of  the  Church,  are  disciples  and  successors 
of  Simon,  the  Samaritan  magician."  Simon  gave  himself  forth 
as  a  god,  and  carried  about  with  him  a  beautiful  woman  named 
Helena,  whom  he  represented  as  the  first  conception  of  his  — 
that  is,  of  the  divine  —  mind,  the  symbol  or  manifestation  of 
that  portion  of  spirituality  which  had  become  entangled  in 
matter.  He  represented  her  as  a  resuscitation  of  the  famous 
Helen  of  Troy,  which  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  Goethe  the 
resuscitation  of  Helena  in  the  second  part  of  "  Faust." 

The  incidents  of  the  story  of  Simon  Magus  have  been  often 
and  variously  treated. 

1.  By  Quentin  Massys :    Peter  refuses  the  offer  of  Simon 
Magus —  "  Thy  money  perish  with  thee  ! "     Here  Peter  wears 
the  mitre  of  a  bishop :  the  picture  is  full  of  coarse  but  natural 
expression. 

2.  "  Peter  and  Paul  Accused  before  Nero  :  "  the  fresco  in 
the  Brancacci  Chapel,  attributed  by  Kugler  to  Filippiuo»Lippi, 
is  certainly  one  of  the  most  perfect  pieces  of  Art,  as  a  dramatic 
composition,  which  we  have  before  the  time  of  Raphael.     To 
the  right  the  emperor  is  seated  on  his  throne,  on  each  side  his 
ministers  and  attendants.     The  countenances  are  finely  varied  ; 
some  of  them  animated  by  attention  and  curiosity,  others  sunk 
in  deep  thought.      The  two  apostles,  and  their  accuser,  Simon 
Magus,  are  in  front.      Simon,  a  magnificent  figure,  who  might 
serve  for  a  Prospero,  lays  his  hand  on  the  vest  of  Peter,  as  if 
to  drag  him  forward ;   Paul  stands  aside  with  quiet  dignity  ; 
Peter,  with  a  countenance  full  of  energetic  expression,  points 
contemptuously  to  the  broken  idol  at  his  feet.     For  the  felicity 
and  animation  with  which  the  story  is  told,  and  for  propriety, 
grace,  and  grandeur,  Raphael  has  not  often  exceeded  this  pic- 
ture. 

3.  Another  of  the  series  of  the  life  of  Peter  in  the  Bran- 
cacci  Chapel   is   the   resuscitation    of  the   youth,  who   in  the 
legend  is  called  the  nephew  of  the  emperor ;   a  composition  of 
numerous  figures  [painted  partly  by  Masaccio  and  partly  by 
Filippino  Lippi].      In  the  centre  stands  St.  Peter,  and   before 
him  kneels  the  youth ;  a  skull  and  a  few  bones  are  near  him 
—  a  na'ive  method  of  expressing  his  return  from  death  to  life. 


200  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

The  variety  of  expression  in  the  countenances  of  the  assembled 
spectators  is  very  fine.  According  to  the  custom  of  the  Flor- 
entine school  at  that  time,  many  are  portraits  of  distinguished 
persons  ;  and,  considering  that  the  fresco  was  painted  at  a 
period  most  interesting  in  the  Florentine  history  (A.  D.  1440). 
we  have  much  reason  to  regret  that  these  can  no  longer  be 
discriminated. 

4.  "  The  Fall  of  Simon  Magus  "  is  a  favorite  and  pictur- 
esque subject,  often  repeated.  A  most  ancient  and  most  curi- 
ous version  is  that  on  the  walls  of  the  Cathedral  at  Assisi, 
older  than  the  time  of  Giotto,  and  attributed  to  Giunta  Pisano 
(A.  D.  1232).  On  one  side  is  a  pyramidical  tower  formed  of 
wooden  bars  ;  Peter  and  Paul  are  kneeling  in  front ;  the  figure 
of  the  magician  is  seen  floating  in  the  air  and  sustained  by 
hideous  demons  ;  —  very  dreamy,  poetical,  and  fanciful.  In 
Mr.  Ottley's  collection  I  saw  a  small  ancient  picture  of  the 
same  subject,  very  curious,  attributed  to  Benozzo  Gozzoli. 
Raphael's  composition  in  the  Vatican  has  the  simplicity  of  a 
classical  bas-relief  —  a  style  which  does  not  appear  suited  to 
this  romantic  legend.  The  picture  by  L.  Caracci  at  Naples  I 
have  not  seen.  Over  one  of  the  altars  of  St.  Peter,  we  now 
see  Vanni's  picture  of  this  subject ;  a  clever  commonplace 
treatment :  the  scene  is  an  amphitheatre,  the  emperor  above  in 
his  balcony ;  Peter  and  Paul  in  front,  invoking  the  name  of 
Christ,  and  Simon  Magus  tumbling  headlong,  forsaken  by  his 
demons  ;  in  the  background  sit  the  vestals.  Battoni's  great 
picture  in  the  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Rome  is  considered  his 
best  production ;  it  is  full  of  well-studied  academic  drawing, 
but  scenic  and  mannered. 

The  next  subject  in  the  order  of  events  is  styled  the 
"  DOMINE,  QUO  VADIS  ? "  After  the  burning  of  Rome, 
Nero  threw  upon  the  Christians  the  accusation  of  having 
fired  the  city.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  first  persecution, 
in  which  many  perished  by  terrible  and  hitherto  unheard-of 
deaths.  The  Christian  converts  besought  Peter  not  to  expose 
his  life,  which  was  dear  and  necessary  to  the  Avell-being  of  all ; 
and  at  length  he  consented  to  depart  from  Rome.  But  as  he 
fled  along  the  Appian  Way,  about  two  miles  from  the  gates, 
he  was  met  by  a  vision  of  our  Saviour  travelling  towards  the 
city.  Struck  with  amazement,  he  exclaimed,  "  Lord  !  whither 


ST.   PETEK   AND   ST.   PAUL  201 

goest  thou  ?  "  to  which  the  Saviour,  looking  upon  him  with  a 
mild  sadness,  replied,  "  I  go  to  Home  to  be  crucified  a  second 
time,"  and  vanished.  Peter,  taking  this  for  a  sign  that  he 
was  to  submit  himself  to  the  sufferings  prepared  for  him, 
immediately  turned  back  and  reentered  the  city.  Michael 
Angelo's  famous  statue,  now  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria-sopra- 
Minerva  at  Home,  is  supposed  to  represent  Christ  as  He 
appeared  to  Peter  on  this  occasion ;  and  a  cast  or  copy  of  it 
is  in  the  little  church  of  "  Domine,  quo  vadis  ?  "  erected  on 
the  spot  sanctified  by  this  mysterious  meeting. 

It  is  surprising  that  this  most  beautiful,  picturesque,  and, 
to  my  fancy,  sublime  legend,  has  been  so  seldom  treated ;  and 
never,  as  it  appears  to  me,  in  a  manner  worthy  of  its  capa- 
bilities and  its  high  significance.  It  is  seldom  that  a  whole 
story  can  be  told  by  two  figures,  and  these  two  figures  placed 
in  such  grand  and  dramatic  contrast,  —  Christ  in  His  serene 
majesty  and  radiant  with  all  the  glory  of  beatitude,  yet  with 
an  expression  of  gentle  reproach ;  the  apostle  at  His  feet, 
arrested  in  his  flight,  amazed,  and  yet  filled  with  a  trembling 
joy  ;  and  for  the  background  the  wide  Campagna  or  the  tower- 
ing walls  of  imperial  Rome,  —  these  are  grand  materials  ;  but 
the  pictures  I  have  met  with  are  all  ineffective  in  conception. 
The  best  fall  short  of  the  sublime  ideal ;  most  of  them  are 
theatrical  and  commonplace. 

Raphael  has  interpreted  it  in  a  style  rather  too  classical  for 
the  spirit  of  the  legend ;  with  great  simplicity  and  dignity, 
but  as  a,  fact,  rather  than  a  vision  conjured  up  by  the  stricken 
conscience  and  tenderness  of  the  affectionate  apostle.  The 
small  picture  by  Annibal  Caracci  in  our  National  Gallery  is  a 
carefully-finished  academical  study  and  nothing  more,  but  may 
be  referred  to  as  a  fair  example  of  the  usual  mode  of  treat- 
ment. 

Peter  returned  to  Rome,  persisted  in  his  appointed  work, 
preaching  and  baptizing ;  was  seized  with  St.  Paul  and  thrown 
into  the  Mamertine  dungeons  under  the  Capitol.  The  two 
centurions  who  guarded  them,  Processus  and  Martinian,  and 
many  of  the  criminals  confined  in  the  same  prison,  were  con- 
verted by  the  preaching  of  the  apostle ;  and  there  being  no 
water  to  baptize  them,  at  the  prayer  of  St.  Peter  a  fountain 
sprang  up  from  the  stone  floor ;  which  may  be  seen  at  this 
day. 


202  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

"  The  Baptism  of  St.  Processus  and  St.  Martinian  in  the 
Dungeon  "  [by  Giuseppe  Fasseri],  is  in  the  baptistery  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome ;  they  afterwards  suffered  for  the  faith,  and 
were  canonized.  In  the  same  church  [a  mosaic  copy  of  the 
picture  in  the  Vatican]  is  the  scene  of  their  martyrdom  by 
Valentin ;  they  are  seen  bound  and  stretched  on  a  hurdle, 
the  head  of  one  to  the  feet  of  the  other,  and  thus  beaten  to 
death.  The  former  picture  —  the  Baptism  —  is  commonplace  ; 
the  latter,  terrible  for  dark  arid  effective  expression  ;  it  is  just 
one  of  those  subjects  in  which  the  Caravaggio  school  delighted. 

A  few  days  after  their  incarceration,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
were  condemned  to  death.  According  to  one  tradition,  St. 
Peter  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Circus  of  Caligula  at  the  foot 
of  the  Vatican,  and  was  crucified  between  two  metae,  i.  e.  the 
goals  or  terminse  in  the  Circus,  round  which  the  chariots  turned 
in  the  race  ;  but,  according  to  another  tradition,  he  was  put  to 
death  in  the  courtyard  of  a  barrack  or  military  station  on  the 
summit  of  Mons  Janicula,  where  the  church  of  San  Pietro  in 
Montorio  now  stands  ;  that  is,  on  an  eminence  above  the  site 
of  the  Circus  of  Caligula.  At  his  own  request,  and  that  his 
death  might  be  even  more  painful  and  ignominious  than  that 
of  his  Divine  Master,  he  was  crucified  with  his  head  down- 
wards. 

In  the  earliest  representations  I  have  met  with  (MS.,  Vati- 
can, tenth  century),  St.  Peter  is  raised  on  the  cross  with  his 
head  downwards,  and  wears  a  long  shirt  which  is  fastened 
round  his  ankles.  In  the  picture  of  Giotto  (in  the  sacristy  of 
St.  Peter's)  the  local  circumstances,  according  to  the  first  tradi- 
tion, are  carefully  attended  to  :  we  have  the  cross  erected 
between  the  two  metae,  and  about  twenty  soldiers  and  attend- 
ants ;  among  them  a  woman  who  embraces  the  foot  of  the 
cross,  as  the  Magdalene  embraces  the  cross  of  the  Saviour. 
Above  are  seen  angels,  who  bear  the  soul  of  the  martyred 
saint  in  a  glory  to  heaven.  Masaccio's  composition l  (in  the 
Brancacci  Chapel  at  Florence)  is  very  simple  ;  the  scene  is 
the  courtyard  of  a  military  station  (according  to  the  second 
tradition).  Peter  is  already  nailed  upon  a  cross  ;  three  execu- 
tioners are  in  the  act  of  raising  it  with  cords  and  a  pulley  to 

1  [This  fresco  is  attributed  to  Filippino  Lippi  in  Layard's  revision  of  Kug- 
ler's  //undbootc.  p.  143.] 


ST.    PETER   AND   ST.    PAUL 


203 


Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter   (Filippino  Lippi) 


suspend  it  against  a  great  beam  of  wood ;  there  are  several 
soldiers,  but  no  women  present.  In  Guide's  composition 
(Vatican  Gallery)  there  are  only  three  figures,  the  apostle 
and  two  executioners ;  it  is  celebrated  as  a  work  of  Art,  but 
it  appeared  to  me  most  ineffective.  On  the  other  hand, 
Rubens  has  gone  into  the  opposite  extreme  ;  there  are  only 
three  persons,1  the  principal  figure  filling  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  canvas  :  it  is  full  of  vigor,  truth,  and  nature ;  but  the 
brutality  of  the  two  executioners,  and  the  agony  of  the  aged 
saint,  too  coarsely  and  painfully  literal.  These  simple  repre- 
sentations of  the  mere  act  or  fact  should  be  compared  with 
the  fresco  of  Michael  Angelo  in  which  the  event  is  evolved 
into  a  grand  drama.  Here  the  scene  is  evidently  the  summit 

1  [The  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  painted  by  Rubens  for  the  church  of  St. 
Peter,  Cologne,  is  described  as  containing  six  executioners.] 


204 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


St.  Peter  at  the  Gate  of  Paradise  (attributed  to  Simone  Memmi) 

of  the  Mons  Janiculum  :  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  soldiers 
and  spectators,  St.  Peter  lies  nailed  to  the  cross,  which  a  num- 
ber of  men  are  exerting  their  utmost  strength  to  raise  from  the 
ground.  (Vatican.  Cappella  Paolina.) 

The  legend  which  makes  St.  Peter  the  keeper  of  the  gate 
of  Paradise,  with  power  to  grant  or  refuse  admission,  is 
founded  on  the  delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter.  In  most  of 
the  pictures  which  represent  the  entrance  of  the  blessed  into 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  205 

Paradise  or  the  New  Jerusalem,  Peter  stands  with  his  keys 
near  the  gate.  There  is  a  beautiful  example  in  the  great  fresco 
[attributed  to]  Simone  Memmi  in  the  chapel  de'  Sjjagnuoli 
[Santa  Maria  Xovella]  at  Florence  :  St.  Peter  stands  at  the  open 
portal  with  his  great  key,  and  two  angels  crown  with  garlands 
the  souls  of  the  just  as  they  enter  joyously  hand  in  hand.1 

The  legend  of  St.  Petronilla,  the  daughter  of  St.  Peter  (in 
French,  Sainte  Pernelle),  has  never  been  popular  as  a  subject 
of  Art,  and  I  can  remember  no  series  of  incidents  from  the  life 
of  St.  Peter  in  which  she  is  introduced,  except  those  in  the 
Carmine  at  Florence.  It  is  apparently  a  Roman  legend,  and 
either  unknown  to  the  earliest  artists,  or  neglected  by  them. 
It  is  thus  related  :  — 

"  The  apostle  Peter  had  a  daughter  born  in  lawful  wedlock, 
who  accompanied  him  in  his  journey  from  the  East.  Being 
at  Rome  with  him,  she  fell  sick  of  a  grievous  infirmity  which 
deprived  her  of  the  use  of  her  limbs.  And  it  happened  that 
as  the  disciples  were  at  meat  with  him,  in  his  house,  one  said  to 
him,  '  Master,  how  is  it  that  thou,  who  healest  the  infirmities 
of  others,  dost  not  heal  thy  daughter  Petronilla  ?  '  and  St. 
Peter  answered,  '  It  is  good  for  her  to  remain  sick : '  but, 
that  they  might  see  the  power  that  was  in  the  word  of  God,  he 
commanded  her  to  get  up  and  serve  them  at  table,  which  she 
did;  and  having  done  so,  she  lay  down  again  helpless  as 
before  ;  but  many  years  afterwards,  being  perfected  by  her 
long  suffering,  and  praying  fervently,  she  was  healed.  Petro- 
nilla was  wonderfully  fair ;  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  a  young 
and  noble  Roman,  who  was  a  heathen,  became  enamored  of 
her  beauty,  and  sought  her  for  his  wife,  and  he  being  very 
powerful,  she  feared  to  refuse  him  ;  she  therefore  desired  him 
to  return  in  three  days,  and  promised  that  he  should  then 
carry  her  home.  But  she  prayed  earnestly  to  be  delivered 
from  this  peril ;  and  when  Flaccus  returned  in  three  days 
with  great  pomp  to  celebrate  the  marriage,  he  found  her  dead. 
The  company  of  nobles  who  attended  him  carried  her  to  the 
grave,  in  which  they  laid  her,  crowned  with  roses ;  and  Flac- 
cus lamented  greatly."  (Vide  II  perfetto  Legendario.) 

The  legend  places  her  death  in  the  year  98,  that  is,  thirty- 
four  years  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter ;  but  it  would  be  in 

1  [For  full  description  of  this  fresco  and  a  discussion  of  its  authorship,  see 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting  in  Italy,  vol.  ii.  pp.  85-89.] 


206  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

vain  to  attempt  to  reconcile  the  dates  and  improbabilities  of 
this  story. 

St.  Peter  raising  Petronilla  from  her  sick-bed  is  one  of  the 
subjects  by  Masaccio  [or  by  Masolino]  in  the  Brancacci 
Chapel.  The  scene  of  her  entombment  is  the  subject  of  a 
once  celebrated  and  colossal  picture  by  Guercino  [Gallery  of 
Capitol,  Rome]  :  the  copy  in  mosaic  is  over  the  altar  dedicated 
to  her  in  St.  Peter's :  in  front,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
picture,  she  is  just  seen  as  they  are  letting  her  down  into 
the  grave,  crowned  with  roses  ;  behind  stands  Flaccus  with  a 
handkerchief  in  his  hand,  and  a  crowd  of  spectators :  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  picture  Petronilla  is  already  in  Paradise, 
kneeling,  in  a  rich  dress,  before  the  feet  of  Christ,  having 
exchanged  an  earthly  for  a  heavenly  bridegroom.  This  great 
picture  exhibits,  in  a  surpassing  degree,  the  merits  and  defects 
of  Guercino  :  it  is  effective,  dramatic,  deeply  and  forcibly  col- 
ored, and  arrests  attention  :  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  coarse, 
crowded,  vulgar  in  sentiment,  and  repugnant  to  our  better  taste. 
There  is  a  standing  figure  of  Petronilla  in  the  Duomo  at 
Lucca,  by  Daniel  di  Yolterra ;  very  fine.1 


The  life  of  St.  Peter,  when  represented  as  a  series,  generally 
comprises  the  following  subjects,  commencing  with  the  first 
important  incident  after  the  Ascension  of  Christ. 

1  There  was  an  oratory  in  the  church  of  the  Franciscans  at  Varallo,  in  which 
they  celebrated  a  yearly  festival  in  honor  of  St.  Petronilla.  While  Gauden- 
zio Ferrari  was  painting  there  the  series  of  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  the  cruci- 
fixion on  the  Sacro  Monte,  he  promised  to  paint  for  the  festival  an  effigy  of 
the  saint.  The  eve  of  the  day  arrived,  and  still  it  was  not  begun  :  the  people 
murmured,  and  reproached  him,  which  he  affected  to  treat  jestingly  ;  but  he 
arose  in  the  night,  and,  with  no  other  light  than  the  beams  of  the  full  moon, 
executed  a  charming  figure  of  St.  Petronilla,  which  still  exists.  She  stands 
holding  a  book,  a  white  veil  over  her  head,  and  a  yellow  mantle  falling  in 
rich  folds  :  she  has  no  distinctive  emblem.  "Gaudenzio,  che  in  una  bella 
notte  d'  estate  dipinse  fra  ruvide  muraglie  una  Santa  lutta  grazia  e  pudore 
mentre  un  pallidoraggi  di  'lima  sbucato  dalla  frondosa  chioma  d'  albero  dol- 
cemente  gl'  irradia  la  fronte  calva  e  la  barba  rossiccia,  presenta  un  non  so  che  d\ 
ideale  e  di  romanzesco  che  veramente  rapisce."  [Gaudenzio  who  on  a  beau- 
tiful summer  night  painted  between  rough  walls  a  saint  all  grace  and  modesty, 
while  a  pale  moonbeam  came  through  the  leafy  tree-branches  and  lighted  up 
/iis  bald  forehead  and  ruddy  beard,  presented  an  indescribably  ideal  and 
romantic  picture  which  was  truly  ravishing.]  Opere  di  Gaudenzio  Ferrari^ 
No.  21.  (Maggi,  Turin.) 


ST.   PETER  AND   ST.   PAUL  207 

1.  Peter  and  John  heal  the  lame  man  at  the  Beautiful 
Gate.  2.  Peter  heals  the  paralytic  Eneas.  3.  Peter  raises 
Tabitha.  4.  The  angel  takes  off  the  chains  of  Peter.  5.  He 
follows  the  angel  out  of  the  prison.  6.  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul  meet  at  Rome.  7.  Peter  and  Paul  before  Xero  are 
accused  by  Simon  Magus.  8.  The  fall  of  Simon  Magus. 
9.  The  crucifixion  of  St.  Peter. 

The  fine  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel  at 
Florence  is  differently  arranged  ;  thus  :  1.  The  tribute  money 
found  in  the  fish  by  St.  Peter.  2.  Peter  preaching  to  the 
converts.  3.  Peter  baptizes  the  converts.  In  this  fresco,  the 
youth,  who  has  thrown  off  his  garments  and  is  preparing  for 
baptism,  is  famous  as  the  first  really  graceful  and  well-drawn 
undraped  figure  which  had  been  produced  since  the  revival  of 
Art.  4.  Peter  and  John  heal  the  cripple  at  the  Beautiful 
Gate,  and  Petronilla  is  raised  from  her  bed.  5.  Peter  in  his 
prison  is  visited  by  Paul.  6.  Peter  delivered  by  the  angel. 
7.  The  resuscitation  of  the  dead  youth.  8.  The  sick  are  laid 
in  the  way  of  Peter  and  John,  "  that  at  the  least  the  shadow 
of  Peter  passing  by  might  overshadow  some  of  them."  9. 
Peter  and  John  distribute  alms ;  a  dead  figure  lies  at  the  feet 
of  the  apostles,  perhaps  Ananias.  The  situation  of  the  fresco 
is  very  dark,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  action 
and  expression  of  the  figures.  10.  Peter  and  Paul  accused 
before  Xero.  11.  The  crucifixion  of  Peter. 

In  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  we  have  of  course  every  scene  from 
the  life  of  the  apostle  which  could  well  be  expressed  by  Art ; 
but  none  of  these  are  of  great  merit  or  interest :  most  of  them 
are  from  the  schools  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

ST.  PAUL,  though  called  to  the  apostleship  after  the  ascen- 
sion of  the  Saviour,  takes  rank  next  to  St.  Peter  as  one  of  the 
chief  witnesses  of  the  Christian  faith.  Of  all  the  apostles  he 
is  the  most  interesting ;  the  one  of  whose  personal  character 
and  history  we  know  most,  and  through  the  most  direct  and 
irrefragable  testimony.  The  events  of  his  life,  as  conveyed 
in  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles,  are  so  well-known  that  I  need 
not  here  particularize  them.  The  legends  connected  with  him 
are  very  few. 

The  earliest  single  figure  of  St.  Paul  to  which  I  can  refer 


208  THE   TWELVE  APOSTLES 

was  found  painted  on  the  walls  of  the  cemetery  of  Priscilla, 
near  Home.  (Second  or  third  century.  Bosio,  p.  519.)  He 
stands,  with  outstretched  arms,  in  the  act  of  prayer  (in  the 
early  ages  of  Christianity  the  act  of  supplication  was  expressed 
in  the  classical  manner,  that  is,  not  with  folded  hands,  but 
with  the  arms  extended)  ;  he  has  the  nimbus ;  his  dress  is 
that  of  a  traveller,  the  tunic  and  pallium  being  short,  and  his 
feet  sandalled,  perhaps  to  indicate  his  many  and  celebrated 
travels ;  perhaps,  also,  it  represents  Paul  praying  for  his  flock 
before  he  departed  from  Macedon  to  return  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xx.)  :  over  this  ancient  figure,  which,  though  ill  drawn,  is 
quite  classical  in  sentiment  and  costume,  is  inscribed  PAULUS. 
PASTOR.  APOSTOLOS  ;  on  his  right  hand  stands  the  Good 
Shepherd,  in  reference  to  the  title  of  PASTOR,  inscribed  over 
his  effigy.  Another  figure  of  St.  Paul,  which  appears  to  be  of 
later  date,  but  anterior  to  the  fifth  century,  was  found  in  the 
catacombs  at  Naples  :  in  this  effigy  he  wears  the  dress  of  a 
Greek  philosopher;  the  style  in  which  the  drapery  is  worn 
recalls  the  time  of  Hadrian :  he  has  no  nimbus,  nor  is  the 
head  bald ;  he  has  sandals  on  his  feet :  over  his  head  is 
inscribed  his  name,  PAULUS  ;  near  him  is  a  smaller  figure 
similarly  draped,  who  offers  him  fruit  and  flowers  in  a  vase ; 
probably  the  personage  who  was  entombed  on  the  spot. 

At  what  period  the  sword  was  given  to  St.  Paul  as  his 
distinctive  attribute,  is  with  antiquaries  a  disputed  point ; 
certainly,  much  later  than  the  keys  were  given  to  Peter. 
(Vide  Mlinter's  Sinnbilder,  p.  35.)  If  we  could  be  sure  that 
the  mosaic  on  the  tomb  of  Otho  II.,  and  another  mosaic  already 
described,  had  not  been  altered  in  successive  restorations, 
these  would  be  evidence  that  the  sword  was  given  to  St. 
Paul  as  his  attribute  as  early  as  the  sixth  century ;  but  there 
are  no  monuments  which  can  be  absolutely  trusted  as  regards 
the  introduction  of  the  sword  before  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century ;  since  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  has  been 
so  generally  adopted,  that  in  the  devotional  effigies  I  can  re- 
member no  instance  in  which  it  is  omitted.  When  St.  Paul 
is  leaning  on  the  sword,  it  expresses  his  martyrdom ;  when  he 
holds  it  aloft,  it  expresses  also  his  warfare  in  the  cause  of 
Christ:  when  two  swords  are  given  to  him,  one  is  the  attri- 
bute, the  other  the  emblem ;  but  this  double  allusion  does 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  209 

not  occur  in  any  of  the  older  representations.  In  Italy  I 
never  met  with  St.  Paul  bearing  two  swords,  and  the  only 
instance  I  can  call  to  mind  is  the  bronze  statue  by  Peter 
Vischer,  on  the  shrine  of  St.  Sebald,  at  Nuremberg. 

Although  devotional  representations  of  St.  Paul  separate 
from  St.  Peter  and  the  other  apostles  occur  very  rarely,  pic- 
tures from  his  life  and  actions  are  commonly  met  with ;  the 
principal  events  are  so  familiar,  that  they  are  easily  recognized 
and  discriminated  even  by  the  most  unlearned  in  biblical 
illustration ;  considered  and  treated  as  a  series,  they  form  a 
most  interesting  and  dramatic  succession  of  scenes,  often  intro- 
duced into  the  old  churches ;  but  the  incidents  chosen  are  not 
always  the  same. 

Paul,  before  his  conversion,  was  present  at  the  stoning  of 
Stephen,  and  he  is  generally  introduced  holding  on  his  knees 
the  garments  of  the  executioners.  In  some  ancient  pictures, 
he  has,  even  while  looking  on  and  "  consenting  to  the  death  " 
of  the  victim,  the  glory  round  his  head,  as  one  who,  while 
"breathing  out  threatenings  and  slaughter  against  the  disci- 
ples of  the  Lord,"  was  already  a  "  chosen  vessel  to  bear  His 
name  before  the  Gentiles."  But  in  a  set  of  pictures  which 
relate  expressly  to  St.  Paul,  the  Martyrdom  of  Stephen  is, 
with  proper  feeling,  omitted,  and  the  series  generally  begins 
with  the  CONVERSION  OF  PAUL,  —  in  his  character  of  apostle, 
the  first  great  event  in  his  life.  An  incident  so  important,  so 
celebrated,  and  in  all  its  accessories  so  picturesque  and  dra- 
matic, has  of  course  been  a  frequent  subject  of  artistic  treat- 
ment, even  as  a  separate  composition.  In  some  of  the  old 
mosaics,  the  story  is  very  simply,  and  at  the  same  time  vividly, 
rendered.  In  the  earliest  examples,  St.  Paul  has  the  nimbus 
or  glory  while  yet  unconverted ;  he  is  prostrate  on  the  ground, 
grovelling  on  his  hands  and  knees;  rays  of  light  fall  upon 
him  out  of  heaven,  where  the  figure  of  Christ,  half  length,  is 
seen  emerging  from  glory ;  sometimes  it  is  a  hand  only,  which 
is  the  emblem  of  the  Almighty  Power ;  two  or  four  attendants 
at  most  are  flying  in  terror.  It  is  not  said  in  Scripture  that 
St.  Paul  journeyed  on  horseback  from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus  ; 
but  the  tradition  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  time  of  Pope  Dalma- 
sius  (A.  D.  384),  as  it  is  then  referred  to.  St.  Augustine  says 
he  journeyed  on  foot,  because  the  Pharisees  made  a  point  of 
religion  to  go  on  foot,  and  it  is  so  represented  in  the  old  Greek 


210  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

mosaics.  The  expression,  "  It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against 
the  pricks/'  has  been  oddly  enough  assigned  as  a  reason  for 
placing  Paul  on  horseback ; 1  at  all  events,  as  he  bore  a  mili- 
tary command,  it  has  been  thought  proper  in  later  times  so  to 
represent  him,  and  also  as  surrounded  by  a  numerous  cortege 
of  attendants.  This  treatment  admits,  of  course,  of  endless 
variety,  in  the  disposition  and  number  of  the  figures,  in  the 
attitudes  and  expression ;  but  the  moment  chosen  is  generally 
the  same. 

1.  The  oldest  example  I  can  cite,  next  to  the  Greek  mo- 
saics, is  an   old    Italian    print   mentioned   by    Zani.       Paul, 
habited  as  a  Koman  warrior,  kneels  with  his  arms  crossed  on 
his  breast,  and  holding  a  scroll,  on  which  is  inscribed  in  Latin, 
"  Lord,  what  shall  I  do  ?  "     Christ  stands  opposite   to  him, 
also  holding  a  scroll,  on  which   is  written,  "  Saul,  Saul,  why 
persecutest    thou  me  ? "      There    are    no   attendants.       Zani 
does  not  give  the  date  of  this  quaint  and  simple  version  of 
the  story. 

2.  Raphael.     Paul,  habited  as  a  Roman  soldier,  is  lying  on 
the   ground  as  thrown  from  his  horse ;    he  looks  upward  to 
Christ,  who   appears  in   the  clouds,  attended  by  three  child- 
angels  :  his  attendants   on  foot  and  on  horseback  are  repre- 
sented as  rushing  to  his  assistance,  unconscious   of  the  vision, 
but  panicstruck  by  its   effect   on   him ;  one   attendant  in  the 
background  seizes  by  the  bridle  the  terrified  horse.     The  origi- 
nal cartoon  of  this  fine  composition  (one  of  the  tapestries  in 
the  Vatican)  is  lost. 

3.  Michael  Angelo.     Paul,  a  noble  figure,  though  prostrate, 
appears  to  be  struck  motionless  and  senseless  ;  Christ  seems  to 
be  rushinr/  down  from  heaven  surrounded  by  a  host  of  angels ; 
those  of  the  attendants  who  are  near  to  Paul  are  flying  in 
all  directions,  while  a  long  train  of  soldiers  is  seen  ascending 
from  the  background.     This  grand  dramatic  composition  forms 
the  pendant  to  the  Crucifixion  of  Peter  in  the  Cappella  Pao- 
lina.     It  is  so  darkened  by  age  and  the  smoke  of  tapers,  and 
so  ill  lighted,  that  it  is  not  easily  made  out ;  but  there  is  a 
fine  engraving,  which  may  be  consulted. 

4.  Another  very  celebrated  composition  of  this  subject  is. 
that  of  Kubens,  in  the  Gallery  of  Mr.  Miles,  at  Leigh  Court. 
Paul,  lying  in   the  foreground,  expresses   in  his  attitude  the 

1   Vide  Zani,  Enc.  della  Belle  Arti. 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  211 

most  helpless  and  grovelling  prostration.  The  attendants  ap- 
pear very  literally  frightened  out  of  their  senses ;  and  the  gray 
horse  snorting  and  rearing  behind  is  the  finest  part  of  the 
picture  :  as  is  usual  with  Rubens,  the  effects  of  physical  fear 
and  amazement  are  given  with  the  utmost  spirit  and  truth ; 
but  the  scriptural  dignity,  the  supernatural  terrors,  of  the 
subject  are  ill  expressed,  and  the  apostle  himself  is  degraded. 
To  go  a  step  lower,  Cuyp  has  given  us  a  Conversion  of  St. 
Paul  apparently  for  the  sole  purpose  of  introducing  horses  in 
different  attitudes ;  the  favorite  dapple  gray  charger  is  seen 
bounding  off  in  terror ;  no  one  looks  at  St.  Paul,  still  less  to 
Christ  above  —  but  the  horses  are  admirable. 

o.  In  Albert  DUrer's  print,  a  shower  of  stones  is  falling 
from  heaven  on  St.  Paul  and  his  company. 

6.  There  is  a  very  curious  and  unusual  version  of  this  sub- 
ject in  a  rare  print  by  Lucas  van  Leyden.  It  is  a  composition 
of  numerous  figures.  St.  Paul  is  seen,  blind  and  bewildered, 
led  between  two  men ;  another  man  leads  his  frightened 
charger ;  several  warriors  and  horsemen  follow,  and  the  whole 
procession  seems  to  be  proceeding  slowly  to  the  right.  In  the 
far  distance  is  represented  the  previous  moment  —  Paul  struck 
down  and  blinded  by  the  celestial  vision. 

"  Paul,  after  his  Conversion,  restored  to  sight  by  Ananias," 
as  a  separate  subject,  seldom  occurs ;  but  it  has  been  treated 
in  the  later  schools  by  Vasari,  by  Cavallucci,  and  by  P.  Cortona. 

"  The  Jews  flagellate  Paul  and  Silas."  I  know  but  one 
picture  of  this  subject,  that  of  Xiccolo  Poussin  :  the  angry 
Jews  are  seen  driving  them  forth  with  scourges ;  the  Elders, 
who  have  condemned  them,  are  seated  in  council  behind :  as 
we  might  expect  from  the  character  of  Poussin,  the  dignity  of 
the  apostles  is  maintained,  —  but  it  is  not  one  of  his  best 
pictures. 

"  Paul,  after  his  Conversion,  escapes  from  Damascus ;  "  he 
is  let  down  in  a  basket  (Acts  ix.  25)  :  the  incident  forms,  of 
course,  one  of  the  scenes  in  his  life  when  exhibited  in  a  series, 
but  I  remember  no  separate  picture  of  this  subject,  and  the 
situation  is  so  ludicrous  and  so  derogatory  that  we  can  under- 
stand how  it  came  to  be  avoided. 


212  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

"  The  ecstatic  vision  of  St.  Paul,  in  which  he  was  caught 
up  to  the  third  heaven."  (2  Cor.  xii.  2.)  Paul,  who  so  fre- 
quently and  familiarly  speaks  of  angels,  in  describing  this 
event,  makes  no  mention  of  them,  hut  in  pictures  he  is  repre- 
sented as  borne  upwards  by  angels.  I  find  no  early  composi- 
tion of  this  subject.  The  small  picture  of  Domenichino  is 
coldly  conceived.  Poussin  has  painted  the  "  Ravissement  de 
St.  Paul  "  twice  ;  in  the  first,  the  apostle  is  borne  upon  the 
arms  of  four  angels,  and  in  the  second  he  is  sustained  by  three 
angels.  In  rendering  this  ecstatic  vision,  the  angels,  always 
allowable  as  machinery,  have  here  a  particular  propriety ; 
Paul  is  elevated  only  a  few  feet  above  the  roof  of  his  house, 
where  lie  his  sword  and  book.  Here  the  sword  serves  to  dis- 
tinguish the  personage ;  and  the  roof  of  the  house  shows  us 
that  it  is  a  vision,  and  not  an  apotheosis.  [One  picture  is  in 
the  Louvre  and  another  in  England.] 

"  Paul  Preaching  to  the  Converts  at  Ephesus."  In  a  beau- 
tiful Raffaelesque  composition  by  Le  Sueur,  the  incident  of  the 
magicians  bringing  their  books  of  sorcery  and  burning  them 
at  the  feet  of  the  apostle  is  well  introduced.  It  was  long  the 
custom  to  exhibit  this  picture  solemnly  in  Notre  Dame  every 
year  on  the  1st  of  May.  It  is  now  in  the  Louvre. 

"  Paul  before  Felix,"  and  "  Paul  before  Agrippa."  Neither 
of  these  subjects  has  ever  been  adequately  treated.  It  is  to 
me  inconceivable  that  the  old  masters  so  completely  overlooked 
the  opportunity  for  grand  characteristic  delineation  afforded  by 
both  these  scenes,  the  latter  especially.  Perhaps  in  estimat- 
ing its  capabilities,  we  are  misled  by  the  effect  produced  on 
the  imagination  by  the  splendid  eloquence  of  the  apostle ;  yet, 
were  another  Raphael  to  arise,  I  would  suggest  the  subject  as 
a  pendant  to  the  St.  Paul  at  Athens. 

"  Paul  performs  miracles  before  the  Emperor  Nero ; "  a 
blind  man,  a  sick  child,  and  a  possessed  woman  are  brought 
to  him  to  be  healed.  This,  though  a  legendary  rather  than  a 
scriptural  subject,  has  been  treated  by  Le  Sueur  with  scriptural 
dignity  and  simplicity. 

"  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Paul "  is  sometimes  a  separate  sub- 
ject, but  generally  it  is  the  pendant  to  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Peter.  According  to  the  received  tradition,  the  two  apostles 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  213 

suffered  at  the  same  time,  but  in  different  places  ;  for  St.  Paul, 
being  by  birth  a  Roman  citizen,  escaped  the  ignominy  of  the 
public  exposure  in  the  Circus,  as  well  as  the  prolonged  torture 
of  the  cross.  He  was  beheaded  by  the  sword  outside  the 
Ostian  gate,  about  two  miles  from  Rome,  at  a  place  called 
the  Aqua  Salvias,  now  the  "  Tre  Fontane."  The  legend  of  the 
death  of  St.  Paul  relates  that  a  certain  Roman  matron,  named 
Plautilla,  one  of  the  converts  of  St.  Peter,  placed  herself  on  the 
road  by  which  St.  Paul  passed  to  his  martyrdom,  in  order  to 
behold  him  for  the  last  time  ;  and  when  she  saw  him,  she 
wept  greatly,  and  besought  his  blessing.  The  apostle  then, 
seeing  her  faith,  turned  to  her  and  begged  that  she  would 
give  him  her  veil  to  bind  his  eyes  when  he  should  be  beheaded, 
promising  to  return  it  to  her  after  his  death.  The  attendants 
mocked  at  such  a  promise,  but  Plautilla,  with  a  woman's  faith 
and  charity,  taking  off  her  veil,  presented  it  to  him.  After 
his  martyrdom,  St.  Paul  appeared  to  her,  and  restored  the  veil 
stained  with  his  blood.  It  is  also  related,  that  when  he.  was 
decapitated  the  severed  head  made  three  bounds  upon  the  earth, 
and  wherever  it  touched  the  ground  a  fountain  sprang  forth. 

In  the  most  ancient  representations  of  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Paul,  the  legend  of  Plautilla  is  seldom  omitted.  In  the 
picture  of  Giotto  preserved  in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's, 
Plautilla  is  seen  on  an  eminence  in  the  background,  receiving 
the  veil  from  the  hand  of  Paul,  who  appears  in  the  clouds 
above  ;  the  same  representation,  but  little  varied,  is  executed 
in  bas-relief  on  the  bronze  doors  of  St.  Peter's.  The  three 
fountains  gushing  up  beneath  the  severed  head  are  also  fre- 
quently repreaented  as  a  literal  fact,  though  a  manifest  and 
beautiful  allegory,  figurative  of  the  fountains  of  Christian 
faith  which  should  spring  forth  from  his  martyrdom. 

In  all  the  melancholy  vicinity  of  Rome,  there  is  not  a  more 
melancholy  spot  than  the  "  Tre  Fontane."  A  splendid  mon- 
astery, rich  with  the  offerings  of  all  Christendom,  once  existed 
there ;  the  ravages  of  that  mysterious  scourge  of  the  Cam- 
pagna,  the  malaria,  have  rendered  it  a  desert ;  three  ancient 
churches  and  some  ruins  still  exist,  and  a  few  pale  monks 
wander  about  the  swampy  dismal  confines  of  the  hollow  in 
which  they  stand.  In  winter  you  approach  them  through  a 
quagmire ;  in  summer,  you  dare  not  breathe  in  their  pesti- 
lential vicinity  ;  and  yet  there  is  a  sort  of  dead  beauty 


214  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

about  the  place,  something  hallowed  as  well  as  sad,  which 
seizes  on  the  fancy.  In  the  church  properly  called  "  San  Paolo 
delle  Tre  Fontane,"  and  which  is  so  old  that  the  date  of  the 
foundation  is  unknown,  are  three  chapels  with  altars  raised 
over  as  many  wells  or  fountains  ;  the  altars  are  modern,  and 
have  each  the  head  of  St.  Paul  carved  in  relief.  The  water, 
which  appeared  to  me  exactly  the  same  in  all  the  three  foun- 
tains, has  a  soft  insipid  taste,  neither  refreshing  nor  agreeable. 
The  ancient  frescoes  have  perished,  and  the  modern  ones  are 
perishing.  It  is  a  melancholy  spot. 

To  return,  however,  to  that  event  which  has  rendered  it  for 
ages  consecrated  and  memorable.  Among  the  many  represen- 
tations of  the  decollation  of  St.  Paul  which  exist  in  sculpture 
and  in  painting,  I  have  not  met  with  one  which  could  take  a 
high  place  as  a  work  of  Art,  or  which  has  done  justice  to  the 
tragic  capabilities  of  the  subject. 

After  his  martyrdom,  the  body  of  St.  Paul  was  interred  on 
a  spot  between  the  Ostian  gate  and  the  Aqua  Salvias,  and 
there  arose  the  magnificent  church  known  as  San  Yaolo-fuori- 
le-mura.  I  saw  this  church  a  few  months  before  it  was  con- 
sumed by  fire  in  1823 ;  I  saw  it  again  in  1847,  when  the 
restoration  was  far  advanced.  Its  cold  magnificence,  compared 
with  the  impressions  left  by  the  former  structure,  rich  with 
inestimable  remains  of  ancient  Art,  and  venerable  from  a 
thousand  associations,  saddened  and  chilled  me. 

The  mosaics  in  the  old  church,  which  represented  the  life 
and  actions  of  St.  Paul,  were  executed  by  the  Greek  mosaic 
masters  of  the  eleventh  century.  They  appear  to  have  com- 
prised the  same  subjects  which  still  exist  as  _a  series  in  the 
church  of  Monreale  near  Palermo,  and  which  I  shall  now 
describe. 

1.  Saul   is  sent  by  the   high   priest    to    Damascus.     Two 
priests  are  seated  on  a  raised  throne  in  front  of  the  Temple  ; 
Saul  stands  before  them. 

2.  The  Conversion  of  Saul,  as  already  described. 

3.  Saul,  being  blind,  is  led  by  his  attendants  to  the  gate  of 
Damascus. 

4.  Saul  seated.     Ananias  enters  and  addresses  him. 

5.  Paul  is  baptized  :  he  is  standing,  or  rather  sitting,  in  a 
font,  which  is  a  large  vase,  and  not  much  larger  in  proportion 
than  a  punch-bowl. 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  215 

6.  St.  Paul  disputes  with  the  Jews.     His  attitude  is  vehe- 
ment and  expressive  ;  three  Jewish  doctors  stand  before  him 
as  if  confounded  and  put  to  silence  by  his  eloquent  reasoning. 

7.  St.  Paul  escapes  from  Damascus  ;  the  basket  in  which 
he  is  lowered  down  from  a  parapet  is  about  the  size  of  a  hand- 
basket. 

8.  St.  Paul  delivers  a  scroll  to  Timothy  and  Silas  ;   he  con- 
signs to  their  direction  the  deacons  that  were  ordained  by  the 
apostles  and  elders.      (Acts  xvi.  4.) 

9.  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  meet  at  Rome,  and  embrace  with 
brotherly  affection.      I    believe  this  subject   to  represent  the 
reconciliation  of  the  two  apostles  after  the  dispute  at  Antioch. 
The  inscription  is,  Hie  Paulus  venit  Bo  mam  et  pacem  fecit 
cum  Petro.     In  the  Christian  Museum  in  the  Vatican  there 
is  a  most  beautiful  small  Greek  picture  in  which  Peter  and 
Paul  are  embracing  ;  it  may  represent  the  reconciliation  or  the 
parting  :   the  heads,   though  minute,  are  extremely  character- 
istic. * 

10.  The  Decollation  of  St.  Paul  at  the  Aqua  Salvias ;  one 
fountain  only  is  introduced. 

This  is  the  earliest  instance  I  can  quote  of  the  dramatic 
treatment  of  the  life  and  actions  of  St.  Paul  in  a  series  of 
subjects.  The  Greek  type  of  the  head  of  St.  Paul  is  retained 
throughout,  strongly  individualized,  and  he  appears  as  a  man  of 
about  thirty-five  or  forty.  In  the  later  schools  of  Art,  which 
afford  some  celebrated  examples  of  the  life  of  St.  Paul  treated 
as  a  series,  the  Greek  type  has  been  abandoned. 

The  series,  by  Raphael,  executed  for  the  tapestries  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican,  consists  of  five  large  and  seven 
small  compositions. 

1.  The  Conversion  of  Saul,  already  described ;  the  cartoon 
is  lost.  2.  Elymas  the  sorcerer  struck  blind ;  wonderful  for 
dramatic  power.  3.  St.  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra.  4.  Paul 
preaches  at  Athens.  Of  these  three  magnificent  compositions 
we  have  the  cartoons  at  [South  Kensington].  5.  St.  Paul  in 
prison  at  Philippi.  The  earthquake  through  which  he  was 
liberated  is  here  represented  allegorically  as  a  Titan  in  the 
lower  corner  of  the  picture,  with  shoulders  and  arms  heaving 
up  the  earth.  This,  which  strikes  us  as  rather  pagan  in  con- 
ception, has,  however,  a  parallel  in  the  earliest  Christian  Art, 
where,  in  the  baptism  of  Christ,  the  Jordan  is  sometimes  rep- 


216  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

resented  by  a  classical  river-god,  sedge-crowned,  and  leaning  on 
his  urn. 

The  seven  small  subjects,  which  in  the  set  of  tapestries 
run  underneath  as  borders  to  the  large  compositions,  are  thus 
arranged  :  — 

1.  "As  for  Saul,  he  made  havoc  of  the  church,  entering 
into  every  house,  and  haling  men  and  women  committed  them 
to  prison."     (Acts  viii.  3.)     At  one  end  of  a  long  narrow  com- 
position Saul  is  seated  in  the  dress  of  a  Roman  warrior,  and 
attended  by  a  lictor ;  they  bring  before  him  a  Christian  youth ; 
farther  on  are  seen  soldiers  "  haling  men  and  women  "  by  the 
hair ;  others  flee  in  terror.     This  was  erroneously  supposed  to 
represent  the  massacre  at  Prato,  in  1512,  by  the  adherents  of 
the  Medici,  and  is  so  inscribed  in  the  set  of  engravings  by 
Bartoli  and  Landon. 

2.  John  and  Mark  taking  leave  of  the  brethren  at  Perga  in 
Pamphylia.      (Acts  xiii.  3.) 

3.  Paul,  teaching  in  the  synagogue  at  Antioch,  confounds 
the  Jews.      (Acts  xviii.  3.)  * 

4.  Paul  at  Corinth  engaged  in  tent-making  with  his  host. 
This  is  an  uncommon  subject,  but  I  remember  another  instance 
in  a  curious  old  German  print,  where,  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
composition,  the  apostle  is  teaching  or  preaching ;  and  above 
there  is  a  kind  of  gallery  or  balcony,  in  which  he  is  seen  work- 
ing at  a  loom :   "  You  yourselves  know  that  these  hands  have 
ministered  to  my  necessities,  laboring  night  and  day,  because 
we  would  not  be  chargeable  unto  you."      (Acts  xviii.  6.) 

5.  Being  at   Corinth,  he   is  mocked  by  the  Jews.      (Acts 
viii.  12.) 

6.  He  lays  his  hand  on  the  Christian  converts. 

7.  He  is  brought  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Gallic.1 

"  Paul,  in  the  island  of  Melito,  shaking  the  viper  from  his 
hand,"  is  not  a  common  subject,  and  yet  it  is  capable  of  the 
finest  picturesque  and  dramatic  effects :  the  storm  and  ship- 
wreck in  the  background,  the  angry  heavens  above,  the  red 
firelight,  the  group  of  astonished  mariners,  and,  preeminent 
among  them,  the  calm  intellectual  figure  of  the  apostle  shak- 

1  Those  who  consult  the  engravings  by  Santi  Bartoli  and  Landon  must 
bear  in  mind  that  almost  all  the  references  are  erroneous.  See  Passavant's 
Rafael  [German  edition],  vol.  ii.  p.  245. 


ST.   PETER   AND   ST.   PAUL  217 

ing  the  venomous  beast  from  his  hand,  —  these  are  surely 
beautiful  and  available  materials  for  a  scenic  picture.  Even  if 
treated  as  an  allegory  in  a  devotional  sense,  a  single  majestic 
figure,  throwing  the  evil  thing  innocuous  from  him,  which  I 
have  not  yet  seen,  it  would  be  an  excellent  and  a  significant 
subject.  The  little  picture  by  Elzheimer  is  the  best  example 
I  can  cite  of  the  picturesque  treatment.  That  of  Le  Sueur 
has  much  dignity ;  those  of  Perino  del  Vaga,  Thornhill,  West, 
are  all  commonplace. 

Thornhill,  as  everybody  knows,  painted  the  eight  principal 
scenes  of  the  life  of  the  apostle  in  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's.1 
Few  people,  I  should  think,  have  strained  their  necks  to  ex- 
amine them  ;  the  eight  original  studies,  small  sketches  en  gri- 
saille, are  preserved  in  the  vestry,  and  display  that  heartless, 
mindless,  mannered  mediocrity,  which  makes  all  criticism  fool- 
isrfbess  ;  I  shall,  however,  give  a  list  of  the  subjects. 

1.  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra.  2.  Paul  preaching  at 
Athens.  3.  Elymas  struck  blind.  4.  The  converts  burn 
their  magical  books.  5.  Paul  before  Festus.  6.  A  woman 
seated  at  his  feet ;  I  presume  the  Conversion  of  Lydia  of  Thy- 
atira.  7.  Paul  let  down  in  a  basket.  8.  He  shakes  the 
viper  from  his  hand. 

At  the  time  that  Thornhill  was  covering  the  cupola  at  "  the 
rate  of  £2  the  square  yard,"  Hogarth,  his  son-in-law,  would 
also  try  his  hand.  He  painted  "  St.  Paul  pleading  before 
Felix  "  for  Lincoln's  Inn  Hall ;  where  the  subject,  at  least,  is 
appropriate.  The  picture  itself  is  curiously  characteristic,  not 
of  the  scene  or  of  the  chief  personage,  but  of  the  painter.  St. 
Paul  loaded  with  chains,  and  his  accuser  Tertullus,  stand  in 
front ;  and  Felix,  with  his  wife  Brasilia,  are  seated  on  a  raised 
tribunal  in  the  background ;  near  Felix  is  the  high  priest 
Ananias.  The  composition  is  good.  The  heads  are  full  of 
vivid  expression  —  wrath,  terror,  doubt,  fixed  attention  ;  but 
the  conception  of  character  most  ignoble  and  commonplace. 
Hogarth  was  more  at  home  when  he  took  the  same  subject  as 
a  vehicle  for  a  witty  caricature  of  the  Dutch  manner  of  treat- 
ing sacred  subjects  —  their  ludicrous  anachronisms  and  mean 

i  The  clergy  who  permitted  Sir  James  Thornhill  to  paint  the  cupola  of  St. 
Paul's  with  Scripture  scenes,  refused  to  admit  any  other  paintings  into  the 
cnureli.  Perhaps  they  were  justified;  but  not  by  the  plea  of  Bishop  Terrick 
—  the  fear  of  idolatry. 


218  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

incidents.  St.  Paul,  in  allusion  to  his  low  stature,  is  mounted 
on  a  stool ;  an  angel'  is  sawing  through  one  leg  of  it ;  Tertul- 
lus  is  a  barrister,  in  wig,  band,  and  gown  ;  the  judge  is  like  an 
old  doting  justice  of  peace,  and  his  attendants  like  old  beggars. 
In  the  Florentine  Gallery  there  is  a  very  curious  series  of 
the  lives  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in  eight  pictures,  in  the 
genuine  old  German  style;  fanciful,  animated,  full  of  natural 
and  dramatic  expression,  and  exquisitely  finished, — but  dry, 
hard,  grotesque,  and  abounding  in  anachronisms.  This  series, 
the  most  important  work  of  the  painter,  Hans  Schaufelein,  is 
not  mentioned  in  Kugler's  "  Handbook."  It  is  engraved  in 
outline  in  the  New  Florence  Gallery,  published  in  1837. 

Among  the  few  separate  historical  subjects  in  which  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  represented  together,  the  most  impor- 
tant is  the  dispute  at  Antioch,  —  a  subject  avoided  by  'the 
earliest  painters.  St.  Paul  says,  "  When  Peter  was  come  to 
Antioch,  I  withstood  him  to  the  face,  because  he  was  to  be 
blamed."  Guide's  picture  in  the  Brera  at  Milan  is  cele- 
brated :  Peter  is  seated,  looking  thoughtful,  with  downcast 
eyes,  an  open  book  on  his  knees ;  Paul,  in  an  attitude  of 
rebuke,  stands  over  against  him.  There  is  another  example 
by  Rosso :  here  both  are  standing ;  Peter  is  looking  down : 
Paul,  with  long  hair  and  beard  floating  back,  and  a  keen 
reproving  expression,  "rebukes  him  to  his  face."  I  presume 
the  same  subject  to  be  represented  by  Lucas  van  Leyden  in  a 
rare  and  beautiful  little  print,  in  which  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
are  seated  together  in  earnest  conversation.  St.  Peter  holds  a 
key  in  his  right  hand,  and  points  with  the  other  to  a  book 
which  lies  on  his  kiu^s.  St.  Paul  is  about  to  turn  the  leaf, 
and  his  right  hand  appears  to  rebuke  St.  Peter  j  his  left  foot 
is  on  the  sword  which  lies  at  his  feet. 

"  The  Parting  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  before  they  are 
led  to  death."  The  scene  is  without  the  gates  of  Rome ;  and 
as  the  soldiers  drag  Peter  away,  he  turns  back  to  Paul  with  a 
pathetic  expression.  This  picture,  now  in  the  Louvre,  is  one 
of  Lanfranco's  best  compositions. 

"  St.  Paul  prevents  his  jailer  from  killing  himself "  (Acts 
xvi.)  has  been  lately  painted  by  Claude  Halle,  and  is  now  in 
the  Louvre. 


ST.   PETER  AND   ST.   PAUL  219 

When  the  crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  and  the  decollation  of  St. 
Paul  are  represented  together  in  the  same  picture,  such  a 
picture  must  be  considered  as  religious  and  devotional,  not 
historical ;  it  does  not  express  the  action  as  it  really  occurred, 
but,  like  many  pictures  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  it  is 
placed  before  us  as  an  excitement  to  piety,  self-sacrifice,  and 
repentance.  We  have  this  kind  of  treatment  in  a  picture  by 
Xiccolo  dell'  Abate  (in  the  Dresden  Gal.)  :  St.  Paul  kneels 
before  a  block,  and  the  headsman  stands  with  sword  uplifted 
in  act  to  strike ;  in  the  background,  two  other  executioners 
grasp  St.  Peter,  who  is  kneeling  on  his  cross  and  praying 
fervently :  above,  in  a  glory,  is  seen  the  Virgin ;  in  her  arms 
the  Infant  Christ,  Avho  delivers  to  two  angels  palm-branches 
for  the  martyred  saints.  The  genius  of  Niccolo  was  not  pre- 
cisely fitted  for  this  class  of  subjects.  But  the  composition  is 
full  of  poetical  feeling.  The  introduction  of  the  Madonna 
and  Child  stamps  the  character  of  the  picture  as  devotional, 
not  historical  —  it  would  otherwise  be  repulsive,  and  out  of 
keeping  with  the  subject. 

There  is  a  Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  engraved 
after  Parmigiano,  which  I  shall  notice  on  account  of  its  care- 
less and  erroneous  treatment.  They  are  put  to  death  together ; 
an  executioner  prepares  to  decapitate  St.  Peter,  and  another 
drags  St.  Paul  by  the  beard :  the  incidents  are  historically 
false,  and,  moreover,  in  a  degraded  and  secular  taste.  These 
are  the  mistakes  that  make  us  turn  disgusted  from  the  tech- 
nical facility,  elegance,  and  power  of  the  sixteenth  century,  to 
the  simplicity  and  reverential  truth  of  the  fourteenth. 

There  are  various  traditions  concerning  the  relics  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul.  According  to  some,  the  bodies  of  the  two 
apostles  were,  in  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus,  deposited  by  the 
Christian  converts  in  the  catacombs  of  Eome,  and  were  laid  in 
the  same  sepulchre.  After  the  lapse  of  about  two  hundred 
years,  the  Greek  or  Oriental  Christians  attempted  to  carry 
them  off;  but  were  opposed  by  the  Roman  Christians.  The 
Romans  conquered ;  and  the  two  bodies  were  transported  to 
the  church  of  the  Vatican,  where  they  reposed  together  in  a 
magnificent  shrine,  beneath  the  church.  Among  the  engrav- 
ings in  the  work  of  Ciampini  and  Bosio  are  two  rude  old 
pictures  commemorating  this  event.  The  first  represents  the 


220  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

combat  of  the  Orientals  and  the  Romans  for  the  bodies  of  the 
Saints ;  in  the  other,  the  bodies  are  deposited  in  the  Vatican. 
In  these  two  ancient  representations,  which  were  placed  in  the 
portico  of  the  old  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  the  traditional  types 
may  be  recognized  —  the  broad  full  features,  short  curled 
beard,  and  bald  head  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  oval  face  and  long 
beard  of  St.  Paul. 

Here  I  must  conclude  this  summary  of  the  lives  and  charac- 
ters of  the  two  greatest  apostles,  as  they  have  been  exhibited 
in  Christian  Art ;  to  do  justice  to  the  theme  would  have 
required  a  separate  volume.  One  observation,  however,  sug- 
gests itself,  and  cannot  be  passed  over.  The  usual  type  of 
the  head  of  St.  Peter,  though  often  ill  rendered  and  degraded 
by  coarseness,  can  in  general  be  recognized  as  characteristic ; 
but  is  there  among  the  thousand  representations  of  the  apostle 
Paul  one  on  which  the  imagination  can  rest  completely  satis- 
fied ?  I  know  not  one.  No  doubt  the  sublimest  ideal  of 
embodied  eloquence  that  ever  was  expressed  in  Art  is  Raphael's 
St.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens.  He  stands  there  the  delegated 
voice  of  the  true  God,  the  antagonist  and  conqueror  of  the 
whole  heathen  world  :  —  "  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  HIM 
declare  I  unto  you "  —  is  not  this  what  he  says  ?  Every 
feature,  nay,  every  fold  in  his  drapery,  speaks ;  as  in  the  other 
St.  Paul  leaning  on  his  sword  (in  the  famous  St.  Cecilia), 
every  feature  and  every  fold  of  drapery  meditates.  The  latter 
is  as  fine  in  its  tranquil  melancholy  grandeur  as  the  former  in 
its  authoritative  energy :  in  the  one  the  orator,  in  the  other 
the  philosopher,  were  never  more  finely  rendered :  but  is  it,  in 
either,  the  Paul  of  Tarsus  whom  we  know  ?  It  were  certainly 
both  unnecessary  and  pedantic  to  adhere  so  closely  to  historic 
fact  as  to  make  St.  Paul  of  diminutive  stature,  and  St.  Peter 
weak-eyed :  but  has  Raphael  done  well  in  wholly  rejecting  the 
traditional  portrait  which  reflected  to  us  the  Paul  of  Scripture, 
the  man  of  many  toils  and  many  sorrows,  wasted  with  vigils, 
worn  down  with  travel,  —  whose  high  bald  forehead,  thin 
flowing  hair,  and  long  pointed  beard,  spoke  so  plainly  the  fer-' 
vent  and  indomitable,  yet  meditative  and  delicate,  organization, 
—  and  in  substituting  this  Jupiter  Ammon  head,  with  the 
dark  redundant  hair,  almost  hiding  the  brow,  and  the  full 
bushy  beard  ?  This  is  one  of  the  instances  in  which  Raphael, 


ST.   ANDREW  221 

in  yielding  to  the  fashion  of  his  time,  has  erred,  as  it  seems  to 
me,  —  though  I  say  it  with  all  reverence.  The  St.  Paul  rend- 
ing his  garments  at  Lystra,  and  rejecting  the  sacrifice  of  the 
misguided  people,  is  more  particularly  false  as  to  the  character 
of  the  man,  though  otherwise  so  grandly  expressive,  that  we 
are  obliged  to  admire  what  our  better  sense  —  our  conscience 
—  cannot  wholly  approve. 

I  shall  now  consider  the  rest  of  the  apostles  in  their  proper 
order. 

ST.  ANDREW 

Lai.  S.  Andreas.     Ital.  Sant'  Andrea.     Fr.  St.  Andre.     Patron  saint 
of  Scotland  and  of  Russia.     (Nov.  30,  A.  D.  70.) 

St.  Andrew  was  the  brother  of  Simon,  Peter,  and  the  first 
who  was  called  to  the  apostleship.  Nothing  further  is  recorded 
of  him  in  Scripture  :  he  is  afterwards  merely  included  by  name 
in  the  general  account  of  the  apostles. 

In  the  traditional  and  legendary  history  of  St.  Andrew,  we 
are  told  that,  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  when  the  apostles 
dispersed  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  all  nations,  St.  Andrew  trav- 
elled into  Scythia,  Cappadocia,  and  Bithynia,  everywhere  con- 
verting multitudes  to  the  faith.  The  Russians  believe  that 
he  was  the  first  to  preach  to  the  Muscovites  in  Sarmatia,  and 
thence  he  has  been  honored  as  titular  saint  of  the  empire  of 
Russia.  After  many  sufferings,  he  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and 
thence  travelled  into  Greece,  and  came  at  length  to  a  city  of 
Achaia,  called  Patras.  Here  he  made  many  converts ;  among 
others,  Maximilla,  the  wife  of  the  proconsul  yEgeus,  whom  he 
persuaded  to  make  a  public  profession  of  Christianity.  The 
proconsul,  enraged,  commanded  him  to  be  seized  and  scourged, 
and  then  crucified.  The  cross  on  which  he  suffered  was  of  a 
peculiar  form  (crux  decussata),  since  called  the  St.  Andrew's 
cross ;  and  it  is  expressly  said  that  he  was  not  fastened  to 
his  cross  with  nails,  but  with  cords,  —  a  circumstance  always 
attended  to  in  the  representations  of  his  death.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  remembered,  that  while  all  authorities  agree  that 
he  was  crucified,  and  that  the  manner  of  his  crucifixion  was 
peculiar,  they  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  form  of  his  cross.  St. 
Peter  Chrysologos  says  that  it  was  a  tree :  another  author 
affirms  that  it  was  an  olive-tree.  The  Abbe  Mery  remarks, 


222 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


that  it  is  a  mistake  to  give  the  transverse  cross  to  St.  Andrew ; 

that  it  ought  not  to  differ  from  the  cross  of  our  Lord.     His 

reasons  are  not  absolutely  conclusive  :  "  II  suffit  pour  mon- 
trer  qu'ils  sont  la-dessus  dans  1'erreur, 
de  voir  la  croix  veritable  de  St.  Andre', 
conserve'e  dans  1'Eglise  de  St.  Victor  de 
Marseille ;  on  trouvera  qu'elle  est  k  an- 
gles droits,"  etc.1  Seeing  is  believing; 
nevertheless,  the  form  is  fixed  by  tradi- 
tion and  usage,  and  ought  not  to  be  de- 
parted from,  though  Michael  Angelo  has 
done  so  in  the  figure  of  St.  Andrew  in 
the  Last  Judgment,  and  there  are  sev- 
eral examples  in  the  Italian  masters.2 
The  legend  goes  on  to  relate,  that  St. 
Andrew  on  approaching  the  cross  pre- 
pared for  his  execution,  saluted  and 
adored  it  on  his  knees,  as  being  already 
consecrated  by  the  sufferings  of  the  Re- 
deemer, and  met  his  death  triumphantly. 
Certain  of  his  relics  were  brought  from 
Patras  to  Scotland  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  since  that  time  St.  Andrew  has  been 
honored  as  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland, 
and  of  its  chief  order  of  knighthood. 
He  is  also  the  patron  saint  of  the  famous 
Burgundian  Order,  the  Golden  Fleece  j 

and  of  Russia  and  its  chief  Order,  the  Cross  of  St.  Andrew. 

-  Since  the  fourteenth  century,  St.  Andrew  is  generally  dis- 
tinguished in  works  of  Art  by  the  transverse  cross  ;  the  devo- 
tional pictures  in  which  he  figures  as  one  of  the  series  of 
apostles,  or  singly  as  patron  saint,  represent  him  as  a  very  old 
man  with  some  kind  of  brotherly  resemblance  to  St.  Peter ; 
his  hair  and  beard  silver  white,  long,  loose,  and  flowing,  and 
in  general  the  beard  is  divided ;  he  leans  upon  his  cross,  and 
holds  the  Gospel  in  his  right  hand. 

1  Theologie  des  Peintres. 

2  In  several  ancient  pictures  and  bas-reliefs  the  cross  has  the  usual  form, 
but  he  is  not  nailed  — always  bound  with  cords,  as  in  the  ancient  bas-relief 
over  the  portal  of  his  church  at  Vercelli. 


St.  Andrew  (Vischer) 


ST.   ANDREW  223 

The  historical  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Andrew,  treated 
separately  from  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  are  very  few  ;  his 
crucifixion  is  the  only  one  that  I  have  found  treated  before 
the  fifteenth  century.  On  the  ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo,  the 
instrument  of  his  martyrdom  has  the  shape  of  a  Y,  and  re- 
sembles a  tree  split  down  the  middle.  The  cross  in  some 
later  pictures  is  very  lofty,  and  resembles  the  rough  branches 
of  a  tree  laid  transversely. 

I  know  but  two  other  subjects  relating  to  the  life  of  St. 
Andrew  which  have  been  separately  treated  in  the  later  schools 
of  Art  —  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  and  the  Flagellation. 

"  St.  Andrew  Adoring  his  Cross,"  by  Andrea  Sacchi  (Gal- 
lery of  the  Vatican),  is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  fine 
expression  ;  it  contains  only  three  figures.  St.  Andrew,  half 
undraped,  and  with  his  silver  hair  and  beard  floating  dishevelled, 
kneels,  gazing  up  to  the  cross  with  ecstatic  devotion ;  he  is 
addressing  to  it  his  famous  invocation :  "  Salve,  Croce  pre- 
ziosa !  che  fosti  consecrata  dal  corpo  del  mio  Dio !  "  An 
executioner  stands  by,  and  a  fierce  soldier,  impatient  «of  delay, 
urges  him  on  to  death.1 

"  St.  Andrew  Taken  Down  from  the  Cross  "  is  a  fine  effec- 
tive picture  by  Eibera  (Munich). 

When  Guido  and  Domenichino  painted,  in  emulation  of 
each  other,  the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  Sant'  Andrea  in  the 
church  of  San  Gregorio,  at  Kome,  Guido  chose  for  his  subject 
the  Adoration  of  the  Cross.  The  scene  is  supposed  to  be  out- 
side the  walls  of  Patras  in  Achaia  ;  the  cross  is  at  a  distance 
in  the  background ;  St.  Andrew,  as  he  approaches,  falls  down 
in  adoration  before  the  instrument  of  his  martyrdom,  conse- 
crated by  the  death  of  his  Lord ;  he  is  attended  by  one  soldier 
on  horseback,  one  on  foot,  and  three  executioners  ;  a  group  of 
women  and  alarmed  children  in  the  foreground  are  admirable 
for  grace  and  feeling  —  they  are,  in  fact,  the  best  part  of  the 
picture.  On  the  opposite  wall  of  the  chapel  Domenichino 
painted  the  Flagellation  of  St.  Andrew,  a  subject  most  diffi- 
cult to  treat  effectively,  and  retain  at  the  same  time  the  dig- 
nity of  the  suffering  apostle,  while  avoiding  all  resemblance  to 
a  similar  scene  in  the  life  of  Christ.  Here  he  is  bound  down 

l  [Massi's  catalogue  of  the  Vatican  Gallery  (1887)  contains  no  mention  of 
any  such  picture.] 


224  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

on  a  sort  of  table ;  one  man  lifts  a  rod,  another  seems  to  taunt 
the  prostrate  saint ;  a  lictor  drives  back  the  people.  The 
group  of  the  mother  and  frightened  children,  which  Domeni 
chino  so  often  introduces  with  little  variation,  is  here  verj 
beautiful ;  the  judge  and  lictors  are  seen  behind,  with  a  tem- 
ple and  a  city  in  the  distance.  When  Domenichino  paintec1 
the  same  subject  in  the  church  of  Sant'  Andrea-della-Valle,  ht 
chose  another  moment,  and  administered  the  torture  after  a 
different  manner  :  the  apostle  is  bound  by  his  hands  and  feet 
to  four  short  posts  set  firmly  in  the  ground ;  one  of  the  execu- 
tioners in  tightening  a  cord  breaks  it  and  falls  back ;  three 
men  prepare  to  scourge  him  with  thongs  :  in  the  foreground 
we  have  the  usual  group  of  the  mother  and  her  frightened 
children.  This  is  a  composition  full  of  dramatic  life  and 
movement,  but  unpleasing.  Domenichino  painted  in  the  same 
church  the  crucifixion  of  the  saint,  and  his  apotheosis  sur- 
mounts the  whole. 

All  these  compositions  are  of  great  celebrity  in  the  history 
of  Art  far  color  and  for  expression.  Lanzi  says  that  the  per- 
sonages, "  if  endued  with  speech,  could  not  say  more  to  the  ear 
than  they  do  to  the  eye."  But  in  power  and  pathos  none  of 
them  equal  the  picture  of  Murillo  [Madrid],  of  which  we  have 
the  original  study  in  England.  (In  the  collection  of  Mr.  Miles 
at  Leigh  Court  [Somerset].)  St.  Andrew  is  suspended  on  the 
high  cross,  formed  not  of  planks,  but  of  the  trunks  of  trees  laid 
transversely.  He  is  bound  with  cords,  and  undraped,  except  by  a 
linen  cloth ;  his  silver  hair  and  beard  loosely  streaming  in  the 
air ;  his  aged  countenance  illuminated  by  a  heavenly  transport, 
as  he  looks  up  to  the  opening  skies,  whence  two  angels  of 
really  celestial  beauty,  like  almost  all  Murillo's  angels,  descend 
with  the  crown  and  palm.  In  front,  to  the  right,  is  a  group 
of  shrinking,  sympathizing  women ;  and  a  boy  turns  away, 
crying  with  a  truly  boyish  grief  ;  on  the  left  are  guards  and 
soldiers.  The  subject  is  here  rendered  poetical  by  mere  force 
of  feeling  ;  there  is  a  tragic  reality  in  the  whole  scene,  far  more 
effective,  to  my  taste,  than  the  more  studied  compositions  of 
the  Italian  painters.  The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Andrew,  and  the 
Saint  Preaching  the  Gospel,  by  Juan  de  Roelas,  are  also  men- 
tioned as  splendid  productions  of  the  Seville  school.  [Museum 
of  Seville.] 

I  think  it  possible  that  St.  Andrew  may  owe  his  popularity 


ST.   JAMES   THE   GEEAT  225 

in  the  Spanish  and  Flemish  schools  of  Art  to  his  being  the 
patron  saint  of  the  far-famed  Burgundian  Order  of  the  Golden 
Fleece.  At  the  time  that  Constantinople  was  taken,  and  the 
relics  of  St.  Andrew  dispersed  in  consequence,  a  lively  enthu- 
siasm for  this  apostle  was  excited  throughout  all  Christendom. 
He  had  been  previously  honored  chiefly  as  the  brother  of  St. 
Peter  :  he  obtained  thenceforth  a  kind  of  personal  interest  and 
consideration.  Philip  of  Burgundy  (A.  D.  1433),  who  had  ob- 
tained at  great  cost  a  portion  of  the  precious  relics,  consisting 
chiefly  of  some  pieces  of  his  cross,  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  apostle  his  new  order  of  chivalry,  which,  according  to 
the  preamble,  was  intended  to  revive  the  honor  and  the  mem- 
ory of  the  Argonauts.  His  knights  wore  as  their  badge  the 
cross  of  St.  Andrew. 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT 

t 

Lot.  Sanctus  Jacobus  Major.  Ital.  San  Giacomo,  or  Jacopo,  Mag- 
giore.  Fr.  St.  Jacques  Majeur.  Spa.  San  Jago,  or  Santiago. 
El  Tutelar.  Patron  saint  of  Spain.  (July  25,  A.  D.  44.) 

St.  James  the  Great,  or  the  Elder,  or  St.  James  Major, 
was  nearly  related  to  Christ,  and,  with  his  brother  John  (the 
evangelist)  and  Peter,  he  seems  to  have  been  admitted  to  par- 
ticular favor,  travelled  with  the  Lord,  and  was  present  at  most 
of  the  events  recorded  in  the  Gospels.  He  was  one  of  the 
three  who  were  permitted  to  witness  the  glorification  of  Christ 
on  Mount  Tabor,  and  one  of  those  who  slept  during  the  agony 
in  the  garden.  After  our  Saviour's  ascension,  nothing  is  re- 
corded concerning  him,  except  the  fact  that  Herod  slew  him 
with  the  sword.  In  the  ancient  traditions  he  is  described  as 
being  of  a  zealous  and  affectionate  temper,  easily  excited  to  an- 
ger :  of  this  we  .have  a  particular  instance  in  his  imprecation 
against  the  inhospitable  Samaritans,  for  which  Christ  rebuked 
him  :  "  Ye  know  not  what  manner  of  spirit  ye  are  of.  The 
Son  of  man  is  not  come  to  destroy  men's  lives,  but  to  save 
them."  (Luke  ix.  55.) 

As  Scripture  makes  no  further  mention  of  one  so  distin- 
guished by  his  zeal  and  by  his  near  relationship  to  the  Saviour, 
the  legends  of  the  middle  ages  have  supplied  this  deficiency; 
and  so  amply,  that  St.  James,  as  St.  Jago  or  Santiago,  the 


226  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

military  patron  of  Spain,  became  one  of  the  most  renowned 
saints  in  Christendom,  and  one  of  the  most  popular  subjects  of 
Western  Art.  Many  of  these  subjects  are  so  singular,  that,  in 
order  to  render  them  intelligible,  I  must  give  the  legend  at 
full  length  as  it  was  followed  by  the  artists  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries. 

According  to  the  Spanish  legend,  the  apostle  James  was  the 
son  of  Zebedee,  an  illustrious  baron  of  Galilee,  who,  being 
the  proprietor  of  ships,  was  accustomed  to  fish  along  the  shores 
of  a  certain  lake  called  Gennesareth,  but  solely  for  his  good 
pleasure  and  recreation :  for  who  can  suppose  that  Spain,  that 
nation  of  Hidalgos  and  Caballeros,  would  ever  have  chosen 
for  her  patron,  or  accepted  as  the  leader  and  captain-general 
of  her  armies,  a  poor  ignoble  fisherman  ?  It  remains,  there- 
fore, indisputable,  that  this  glorious  apostle,  who  was  our 
Lord's  cousin-german,  was  of  noble  lineage,  and  worthy  of  his 
spurs  as  a  knight  and  a  gentleman ;  so  in  Dante  :  — 

EC  co  it  Bar  one 
Per  cui  laggiii  si  visita  Galizia. 

But  it  pleased  him,  in  his  great  humility,  to  follow,  while  on 
earth,  the  example  of  his  divine  Lord,  and  reserve  his  warlike 
prowess  till  called  upon  to  slaughter,  by  thousands  and  tens 
of  thousands,  those  wicked  Moors,  the  perpetual  enemies  of 
Christ  and  His  servants.  Now,  as  James  and  his  brother 
John  were  one  day  in  their  father's  ship  with  his  hired  ser- 
vants, and  were  employed  in  mending  the  nets,  the  Lord, 
who  was  walking  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  called  them ;  and 
they  left  all  and  followed  Him  ;  and  became  thenceforward 
His  most  favored  disciples,  and  the  witnesses  of  His  miracles 
while  on  earth.  After  the  ascension  of  Christ,  James  preached 
the  Gospel  in  Judea ;  then  he  travelled  over  the  whole  world, 
and  came  at  last  to  Spain,  where  he  made  very  few  converts, 
by  reason  of  the  ignorance  and  darkness  of  the  people.  One 
day,  as  he  stood  with  his  disciples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro, 
the  blessed  Virgin  appeared  to  him  seated  on  the  top  of  a 
pillar  of  jasper,  and  surrounded  by  a  choir  of  Angels ;  and 
the  apostle  having  thrown  himself  on  his  face,  she  commanded 
him  to  build  on  that  spot  a  chapel  for  her  worship,  assuring 
him  that  all  this  province  of  Saragossa,  though  now  in  the 
darkness  of  paganism,  would  at  a  future  time  be  distinguished 


ST.    JAMES   THE    GREAT  227 

by  devotion  to  her.  He  did  as  the  holy  Virgin  had  com- 
manded, and  this  was  the  origin  of  a  famous  church  afterwards 
known  as  that  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  ("  Nuestra  Senora 
del  Pillar").  Then  St.  James,  having  founded  the  Christian 
faith  in  Spain,  returned  to  Judea,  where  he  preached  for 
many  years,  and  performed  many  wonders  and  miracles  in 
the  sight  of  the  people :  and  it  happened  that  a  certain  sor- 
cerer, whose  name  was  Hermogenes,1  set  himself  against  the 
apostle,  just  as  Simon  Magus  had  wickedly  and  vainly  opposed 
St.  Peter,  and  with  the  like  result.  Hermogenes  sent  his 
scholar  Philetus  to  dispute  with  James,  and  to  compete  with 
him  in  wondrous  works ;  but,  as  you  will  easily  believe,  he 
had  no  chance  against  the  apostle,  and,  confessing  himself 
vanquished,  he  returned  to  his  master,  to  whom  he  announced 
his  intention  to  follow  henceforth  James  and  his  doctrine. 
Then  Hermogenes,  in  a  rage,  bound  Philetus  by  his  diabolical 
spells,  so  that  he  could  not  move  hand  or  foot;  saying,  "Let 
us  now  see  if  thy  new  master  can  deliver  thee :  "  and  Philetus 
sent  his  servant  to  St.  James,  praying  for^aid.  Then  the 
apostle  took  off  his  cloak,  and  gave  it  to  the  servant  to  give 
his  master,  and  no  sooner  had  Philetus  touched  it,  than  he 
became  free,  and  hastened  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet  of  his 
deliverer.  Hermogenes,  more  furious  than  ever,  called  to  the 
demons  who  served  him,  and  commanded  that  they  should 
bring  to  him  James  and  Philetus,  bound  in  fetters ;  but  on 
their  way  the  demons  met  with  a  company  of  Angels,  who 
seized  upon  them,  and  punished  them  for  their  wicked  inten- 
tions, till  they  cried  for  mercy.  Then  St.  James  said  to  them, 
"  Go  back  to  him  who  sent  ye,  and  bring  him  hither  bound." 
And  they  did  so ;  and  having  laid  the  sorcerer  down  at  the 
feet  of  St.  James,  they  besought  him,  saying,  "  Now  give  us 
power  to  be  avenged  of  our  enemy  and  thine ! "  But  St. 
James  rebuked  them,  saying,  "  Christ  hath  commanded  us  to 
do  good  for  evil."  So  he  delivered  Hermogenes  from  their 
hands ;  and  the  magician,  being  utterly  confounded,  cast  his 
books  into  the  sea,  and  desired  of  St.  James  that  lie  would 
protect  him  against  the  demons,  his  former  servants.  Then 
St.  James  gave  him  his  staff,  as  the  most  effectual  means 
of  defence  against  the  infernal  spirits ;  and  Hermogenes  be- 

1  Hermogenes  was  the  name  of  a  famous  Gnostic  teacher  and  philosopher  ; 
thence,  I  suppose,  adopted  into  this  legend. 


228  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

came  a  faithful  disciple  and  preacher  of  the  Word  from  that 
day. 

But  the  evil-minded  Jews,  being  more  and  more  incensed, 
took  James  and  bound  him,  and  brought  him  before  the  tri- 
bunal of  Herod  Agrippa ;  and  one  of  those  who  dragged  him 
along,  touched  by  the  gentleness  of  his  demeanor,  and  by 
his  miracles  of  mercy,  was  converted,  and  supplicated  to  die 
with  him ;  and  the  apostle  gave  him  the  kiss  of  peace,  saying, 
"  Pax  vobis ! "  and  the  kiss  and  the  words  together  have 
remained  as  a  form  of  benediction  in  the  Church  to  this  day. 
Then  they  were  both  beheaded,  and  so  died. 

And  the  disciples  of  St.  James  came  and  took  away  his 
body ;  and,  not  daring  to  bury  it,  for  fear  of  the  Jews,  they 
carried  it  to  Joppa,  and  placed  it  on  board  of  a  ship  :  some 
say  that  the  ship  was  of  marble,  but  this  is  not  authenticated ; 
however,  it  is  most  certain  that  angels  conducted  the  ship 
miraculously  to  the  coast  of  Spain,  where  they  arrived  in 
seven  days ;  and,  sailing  through  the  straits  called  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  they  landed  at  length  in  Galicia,  at  a  port  called 
Iria  Flavia,  now  Padron. 

In  those  days  there  reigned  over  the  country  a  certain 
queen  whose  name  was  Lupa,  and  she  and  all  her  people 
were  plunged  in  wickedness  and  idolatry.  Now,  having  come 
to  shore,  they  laid  the  body  of  the  apostle  upon  a  great  stone, 
which  became  like  wax,  and,  receiving  the  body,  closed  around 
it :  this  was  a  sign  that  the  saint  willed  to  remain  there ;  but 
the  wicked  Queen  Lupa  was  displeased,  and  she  commanded 
that  they  should  harness  some  wild  bulls  to  a  car,  and  place 
on  it  the  body,  with  the  self-formed  tomb,  hoping  that  they 
would  drag  it  to  destruction.  But  in  this  she  was  mistaken ; 
for  the  wild  bulls,  when  signed  by  the  cross,  became  as  docile 
as  sheep,  and  they  drew  the  body  of  the  apostle  straight  into 
the  court  of  her  palace.  When  Queen  Lupa  beheld  this  mir- 
acle, she  was  confounded,  and  she  and  all  her  people  became 
Christians :  she  built  a  magnificent  church  to  receive  the 
sacred  remains,  and  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity. 

But  then  came  the  darkness  and  ruin  which  during  the 
invasion  of  the  Barbarians  overshadowed  all  Spain  ;  and  the 
body  of  the  apostle  was  lost,  and  no  one  knew  where  to  find 
it,  till,  in  the  year  800,  the  place  of  sepulture  was  revealed  to 
a  certain  holy  friar. 


ST.   JAMES   THE   GREAT  229 

Then  they  caused  the  body  of  the  saint  to  be  transported 
to  Compostella;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  surprising  mira- 
cles which  graced  his  shrine,  he  was  honored  not  merely  in 
Galicia,  but  throughout  all  Spain.  He  became  the  patron 
saint  of  the  Spaniards,  and  Compostella,  as  a  place  of  pilgrim- 
age, was  renowned  throughout  Europe.  From  all  countries 
bands  of  pilgrims  resorted  there,  so  that  sometimes  there 
were  no  less  than  a  hundred  thousand  in  one  year.  The 
military  Order  of  Saint  Jago,  enrolled  by  Don  Alphonso  for 
their  protection,  became  one  of  the  greatest  and  richest  in  Spain. 

Now,  if  I  should  proceed  to  recount  all  the  wonderful  deeds 
enacted  by  Santiago  in  behalf  of  his  chosen  people,  they 
would  fill  a  volume.  The  Spanish  historians  number  thirty- 
eight  visible  apparitions,  in  which  this  glorious  saint  descended 
from  heaven  in  person,  and  took  the  command  of  their  armies 
against  the  Moors.  The  first  of  these,  and  the  most  famous 
of  all,  I  shall  now  relate. 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord  939,  King  Eamirez,  having  vowed 
to  deliver  Castile  from  the  shameful  tribute  imposed  by  the 
Moors,  of  one  hundred  virgins  delivered  annually,  collected 
his  troops,  and  defied  their  king  Abdelraman  to  battle  :  — 

The  king  call'd  God  to  witness,  that,  came  there  weal  or  woe, 
Thenceforth  no  maiden  tribute  from  out  Castile  should  go.  — 
"  At  least  I  will  do  battle  on  God  our  Saviour's  foe, 
*  And  die  beneath  my  banner  before  I  see  it  so  !  " 

Accordingly  he  charged  the  Moorish  host  on  the  plain  of 
Alveida  or  Clavijo :  after  a  furious  conflict,  the  Christians 
were,  by  the  permission  of  Heaven,  defeated,  and  forced  to 
retire.  Night  separated  the  combatants,  and  King  Ramirez, 
overpowered  with  fatigue,  and  sad  at  heart,  flung  himself 
upon  his  couch  and  slept.  In  his  sleep  he  beheld  the  apostle 
St.  Jago,  who  promised  to  be  with  him  next  morning  in  the 
field,  and  assured  him  of  victory.  The  king,  waking  up  from 
the  glorious  vision,  sent  for  his  prelates  and  officers,  to  whom 
he  related  it ;  and  the  next  morning,  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
he  recounted  it  to  his  soldiers,  bidding  them  rely  on  heavenly 
aid.  He  then  ordered  the  trumpets  to  sound  to  battle.  The 
soldiers,  inspired  with  fresh  courage,  rushed  to  the  fight. 
Suddenly  St.  Jago  was  seen  mounted  on  a  milk-white  charger, 
and  waving  aloft  a  white  standard ;  he  led  on  the  Christians, 
who  gained  a  decisive  victory,  leaving  60,000  Moors  dead  on 


230  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

the  field.  This  was  the  famous  battle  of  Clavijo ;  and  ever 
since  that  day,  "  SANTIAGO  !  "  has  been  the  war-cry  of  the 
Spanish  armies. 

But  it  was  not  only  on  such  great  occasions  that  the  invin- 
cible patron  of  Spain  was  pleased  to  exhibit  his  power :  he 
condescended  oftentimes  to  interfere  for  the  protection  of  the 
poor  and  oppressed,  of  which  I  will  now  give  a  notable  in- 
stance, as  it  is  related  by  Pope  Calixtus  II. 

There  was  a  certain  German,  who  with  his  wife  and  son 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  St.  James  of  Compostella.  Having 
come  as  far  as  Torlosa,  they  lodged  at  an  inn  there  ;  and  the 
host  had  a  fair  daughter,  who,  looking  on  the  son  of  the 
pilgrim,  a  handsome  and  a  graceful  youth,  became  deeply 
enamored  ;  but  he,  being  virtuous,  and,  moreover,  on  his  way 
to  a  holy  shrine,  refused  to  listen  to  her  allurements. 

Then  she  thought  how  she  might  be  avenged  for  this  slight 
put  upon  her  charms,  and  hid  in  his  wallet  her  father's  silver 
drinking-cup.  The  next  morning,  no  sooner  were  they  de- 
parted, than  the  host,  discovering  his  loss,  pursued  them,  ac- 
cused them  before  the  judge,  and  the  cup  being  found  in  the 
young  man's  wallet,  he  was  condemned  to  be  hanged,  and  all 
they  possessed  was  confiscated  to  the  host. 

Then  the  afflicted  parents  pursued  their  way  lamenting,  and 
made  their  prayer  and  their  complaint  before  the  altar  of  the 
blessed  Saint  Jago  ;  and  thirty-six  days  afterwards  as  they 
returned  by  the  spot  where  their  son  hung  on  the  gibbet,  they 
stood  beneath  it,  weeping  and  lamenting  bitterly.  Then  the 
son  spoke  and  said,  "  O  my  mother!  0  my  father!  do  not 
lament  for  me,  for  I  have  never  been  in  better  cheer  ;  the 
blessed  apostle  James  is  at  my  side,  sustaining  me  and  filling 
me  with  celestial  comfort  and  joy  !  "  The  parents,  being 
astonished,  hastened  to  the  judge,  who  at  that  moment  was 
seated  at  table,  and  the  mother  called  out,  "  Our  son  lives  !  " 
The  judge  mocked  at  them  :  "  What  sayest  thou,  good  woman  ? 
thou  art  beside  thyself !  If  thy  son  liveth,  so  do  those  fowls 
in  my  dish."  And  lo  !  scarcely  had  he  uttered  the  words, 
when  the  fowls  (being  a  cock  and  a  hen)  rose  up  full-feathered 
in  the  dish,  and  the  cock  began  to  crow,  to  the  great  admira- 
tion of  the  judge  and  his  attendants.1  Then  the  judge  rose 

1   Vide  Southey,  Pilgrim  of  Compostella. 


ST.   JAMES   THE   GREAT 


231 


up  from  table  hastily,  and  called  together  the  priests  and  the 
lawyers,  and  they  went  in  procession  to  the  gibbet,  took  down 
the  young  man,  and  restored  him   to  his  parents ;  and  the 
miraculous  cock  and  hen 
were  placed  under  the  pro- 
tection   of     the     Church, 
where  they  and  their  pos- 
terity  long  flourished    in 
testimony  of  this  stupen- 
dous miracle. 

There  are  many  other 
legends  of  St.  James  ;  the 
Spanish  chroniclers  in 
prose  and  verse  abound  in 
such  ;  but,  in  general, 
they  are  not  merely  in- 
credible, but  puerile  and 
unpoetical ;  and  I  have 
here  confined  nlyself  to 
those  which  I  know  to 
have  been  treated  in  Art. 

Previous  to  the  twelfth 
century,  St.  James  is  only 
distinguished  among  the 
apostles  by  Jiis  place, 
which  is  the  fourth  in  the 
series,  the  second  after  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul.  In 
some  instances  he  is  por- 
trayed with  a  family  resemblance  to  Christ,  being  his  kinsman  ; 
the  thin  beard,  and  the  hair  parted  and  flowing  down  on  each 
side.  But  from  the  thirteenth  century  it  became  a  fashion  to 
characterize  St.  James  as  a  pilgrim  of  Compostella  :  he  bears 
the  peculiar  long  staff,  to  which  the  wallet  or  gourd  of  water 
is  suspended ;  the  cloak  with  a  long  cape,  the  scallop-shell  on 
his  shoulder  or  on  his  flapped  hat.  Where  the  cape,  hat, 
and  scallop-shells  are  omitted,  the  staff,  borne  as ,  the  first 
of  the  apostles  who  departed  to  fulfil  his  Gospel  mission,  re- 
mains his  constant  attribute,  and  by  this  he  may  be  recog- 
nized -  in  the  Madonna  pictures,  and  when  grouped  with  othei* 
saints. 


St.  James  Major  (Raphael) 


232 


THE  TWELVE   APOSTLES 


The  single  devotional  figures  of  St.  James  represent  him  in 
two  distinct  characters  :  — 

1.  As  tutelar  saint  of  Spain,  and  conqueror  of  the  Moors. 
In  his  pilgrim  habit,  mounted  on  a  white  charger,  and  waving 
a  white  banner,  with  white  hair  and  beard  streaming  like  a 
meteor,  —  or  sometimes  armed  in  complete  steel,  spurred  like 
a  knight,  his  casque  shadowed  by  white  plumes,  —  he  tramples 

over  the  prostrate  Infidels  ;  so 
completely  was  the  humble, 
gentle-spirited  apostle  of  Christ 
merged  in  the  spirit  of  the  re- 
ligious chivalry  of  the  time. 
This  is  a  subject  frequent  in 
Spanish  schools.  The  figure 
over  the  high  altar  of  Santiago 
is  described  as  very  grand  when 
seen  in  the  solemn  twilight. 

^ /       ^^^  2.   St.  James  as  patron  saint 

/  /]  v — "~~^S\     nn  '  /ase^N"^       in  the  general  sense.     The  most 

f  j.  Id    i         -CvAw///i  JkWL/yA  ° 

beautiful  example  1  have  met 
with  is  a  picture  in  the  [Uffizi, 
at]  Florence,  painted  by  Andrea 
del  Sarto  for  the  Compagnia  or 
Confraternita  of  Sant'  Jacopo, 
and  intended  ^p  figure  as  a 
standard  in  their  processions. 
The  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  of 
Kaphael  was  painted  for  a  sim- 
ilar purpose  :  and  such  are  still 
commonly  used  in  the  religious 
processions  in  Italy  ;  but  they 
have  no  longer  Raphaels  and 

Andrea-del-Sartos  to  paint  them.  In  this  instance  the  picture- 
has  a  particular  form,  high  and  narrow,  adapted  to  its  especial 
purpose  :  St.  James  wears  a  green  tunic,  and  a  rich  crimson 
mantle  ;  and  as  one  of  the  purposes  of  the  Compagnia  was  to 
educate  poor  orphans,  they  are  represented  by  the  two  boys  at 
his  feet.  This  picture  suffered  from  the  sun  and  the  weather, 
to  which  it  had  been  a  hundred  times  exposed  in  yearly  proces- 
sions ;  but  it  has  been  well  restored,  and  is  admirable  for  its 
vivid  coloring  as  well  as  the  benign  attitude  and  expression. 


St.  James  (Andrea  del  Savto) 


ST.    JAMES   THE    GREAT  233 

3.  St.  James  seated  ;  he  holds  a  large  book  bound  in  vel- 
lum  (the  Gospels)  in  his  left  hand  —  and  with  his  right  points 
to  heaven :  by  Guercino,  in  the  gallery  of  Count  Harrach, 
at  Vienna.  One  of  the  finest  pictures  by  Guercino  I  have 
seen. 

Pictures  from  the  life  of  St.  James  singly  j  or  as  a  series, 
are  not  common ;  but  among  those  which  remain  to  us  there 
are  several  of  great  beauty  and  interest. 

In  the  series  of  frescoes  painted  in  a  side  chapel  of  the 
church  of  St.  Antony  of  Padua  (A.  D.  1376),  once  called  the 
Cappella  di  San  Giacomo,  and  now  San  Felice,  the  old  legend 
of  St.  James  has  been  exactly  followed  ;  and  though  ruined 
in  many  parts,  and  in  others  coarsely  repainted,  these  works 
remain  as  compositions  amongst  the  most  curious  monuments 
of  the  Trecentisti.  It  appears  that,  towards  the  year  1376, 
Messer  Bonifacio  de'  Lupi  da  Parma,  Cavaliere  e  Marchese  di 
Serana,  who  boasted  of  his  descent  from  the  Queen  Lupa  of 
the  legend,  dedicated  this  chapel  to  St.  James  of  Spain  (San 
Jacopo  di  Galizia),  and  employed  M.  Jacopo  Avanzi  to  deco- 
rate it,  who  no  doubt  bestowed  his  best  workmanship  on  his 
patron  saint.  The  subjects  are  thus  arranged,  beginning  with 
the  lunette  on  the  left  hand,  which  is  divided  into  three  com- 
partments : 

1.  Hermogenes  sends  Philetus  to  dispute  with  St.  James. 
2.  St.  James  in  his  pulpit  converts  Philetus.  3.  Hermogenes 
sends  his  demons  to  bind  St.  James  and  Philetus.  4.  Hermo- 
genes brought  bound  to  St.  James.  5.  He  burns  his  books  of 
magic.  6.  Hermogenes  and  Philetus  are  conversing  in  a 
friendly  manner  with  St.  James.  7.  St.  James  is  martyred.  8. 
The  arrival  of  his  body  in  Spain  in  a  marble  ship  steered  by  an 
angel.  9.  The  disciples  lay  the  body  on  a  rock,  while  Queen 
Lupa  and  her  sister  and  another  personage  look  on  from  a 
window  in  her  palace.  Then  follow  two  compartments  on  the 
side  where  the  window  is  broken  out,  much  ruined ;  they  rep- 
resented apparently  the  imprisonment  of  the  disciples.  12. 
The  disciples  escape  and  are  pursued,  and  their  pursuers  with 
their  horses  are  drowned.  13.  The  wild  bulls  draw  the  sar- 
cophagus into  the  court  of  Queen  Lupa's  palace.  14.  Bap- 
tism of  Lupa.  15  and  16  (lower  compartments  to  the  left). 
St.  Jago  appears  to  King  Ramirez,  and  the  defeat  of  the 
Moors  at  Clavijo. 


234  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

*••  There  is  a  rare  and  curious  print  by  Martin  Schoen,  in 
which  the  apparition  of  St.  James  at  Clavijo  is  represented 
not  in  the  Spanish  but  the  German  style.  It  is  an  animated 
composition  of  many  figures.  The  saint  appears  on  horseback 
in  the  midst,  wearing  his  pilgrim's  dress,  with  the  cockle-shell 
in  his  hat ;  the  Infidels  are  trampled  down,  or  fly  before 
him. 

On  the  road  from  Spoleto  to  Foligno,.  about  four  miles 
from  Spoleto,  there  is  a  small  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  James 
of  Galizia.  The  frescoes  representing  the  miracles  of  the 
saint  were  painted  by  Lo  Spagna  (A.  D.  1526),  the  friend  and 
fellow  pupil  of  Raphael.  In  the  vault  of  the  apsis  is  the 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin  ;  she  kneels,  attired  in  white  drapery 
flowered  with  gold,  and  the  whole  group,  though  inferior  in 
power,  appeared  to  me  in  delicacy  and  taste  far  superior  to  the 
fresco  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  at  Spoleto,  from  which  Passavant 
thinks  it  is  borrowed.1  Immediately  under  the  Coronation, 
in  the  centre,  is  a  figure  of  St.  James  as  patron  saint,  stand- 
ing with  his  pilgrim's  staff  in  one  hand,  and  the  Gospel  in  the 
other ;  his  dress  is  a  yellow  tunic  with  a  blue  mantle  thrown 
over  it.  In  the  compartment  on  the  left,  the  youth  is  seen 
suspended  on  the  gibbet,  while  St.  James  with  his  hands  under 
his  feet  sustains  him ;  the  father  and  mother  look  up  at  him 
with  astonishment.  In  the  compartment  to  the  right,  we  see 
the  judge  seated  at  dinner,  attended  by  his  servants,  one  of 
whom  is  bringing  in  a  dish  :  the  two  pilgrims  appear  to  have 
just  told  their  story,  and  the  cock  and  hen  have  risen  up  in 
the  dish.  These  frescoes  are  painted  with  great  elegance  and 
animation,  and  the  story  is  told  with  much  naivetd.  ^pfound 
the  same  legend  painted  on  one  of  the  lower  windows  of'  the 
church  of  St.  Ouen,  and  on  a  window  of  the  right-hand  aisle 
in  St.  Vincent's  at  Rouen. 

Of  ST.  JOHN,  who  is  the  fifth  in  the  series,  I  have  spoken 
at  large  under  the  head  of  the  Evangelists. 

1  Passavant's  Rafael  [Ger.  ed.],  i.  508. 


ST.   PHILIP 


235 


ST.  PHILIP 

Ital.  San  Filippo  Apostolo.     Fr.  Saint  Philippe.     Patron  of  Bra- 
bant and  Luxembourg.     (May  1.) 

Of  St.  Philip  there  are  few  notices  in  the  Gospel.  He  was 
born  at  Bethsaida,  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  of  those  whom 
our  Lord  summoned  to  follow  Him.  After  the  ascension,  he 
travelled  into  Scythia,  and  remained  there  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel for  twenty  years ;  he  then  preached  at  Hieropolis  in 
Phrygia,  where  he  found  the  people  addicted  to  the  worship 
of  a  monstrous  serpent  or  dragon,  or  of  the  god  Mars  under 
that  form.  Taking  compassion  on  their  blindness,  the  apostle 
commanded  the  serpent,  in  the  name  of  the  cross  he  held  in 
his  hand,  to  disappear,  and  immediately  the  reptile  glided  out 
from  beneath  the  altar,  at  the  same  time  emitting  such  a  hide- 
ous stench  that  many  people  died,  and  among  them  the  king's 
son  fell  dead  in  the  arms  of  his  attendants ;  but  the  apostle, 
by  Divine  power,  restored 
him  to  life.  Then  the 
priests  of  the  dragon  were 
incensed  against  him,  and 
they  took  him,  and  crucified 
him,  and  being  bound  on  the 
cross  they  stoned  him  ;  thus 
he  yielded  up  his  spirit  to 
God,  praying,  like  his  Di- 
vine Master,  for  his  enemies 
and  tormentors. 

According  to  the  Scrip- 
ture, St.  Philip  had  four 
daughters,  who  were  proph- 
etesses, and  made  man^tcon- 
verts  to  the  faith  of  Christ. 
(Acts  xxi.  9.)  In  the  Greek 
calendar,  St.  Mariamne,  his 
sister,  and  St.  Hermione,  his 
daughter,  are  commemorated 
as  martyrs. 

When  St.  Philip  is  repre- 
sented alone,  or  as  one.  of  the  St.  Philip  (Albert  Diirer) 


236 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


series  of  apostles,  he  is  generally  a  man  in  the  prime  of  life, 
with  little  beard,  and  with  a  benign  countenance,  being  de- 
scribed as  of  a  remarkably  cheerful  and  affectionate  nature. 
He  bears,  as  his  attribute,  a  cross, 
which  varies  in  form ;  sometimes  it 
is  a  small  cross,  which  he  carries  in 
his  hand  ;  sometimes  a  high  cross  in 
the  form  of  a  T,  or  a  tall  staff  with 
a  small  Latin  cross  at  the  top  of  it. 
The  cross  of  St.  Philip  may  have  a 
treble  signification :  it  may  allude  to 
his  martyrdom  ;  or  to  his  conquest 
over  the  idols  through  the  power  of 
the  cross ;  or,  when  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  pilgrim's  staff,  it  may  al- 
lude to  his  mission  among  the  barba- 
rians as  preacher  of  the  cross  of  sal- 
vation. Single  figures  of  St.  Philip 
as  patron  are  not  common :  there  is 
a  fine  statue  [by  Nanni  di  Banco]  of 
him  on  the  fa9ade  of  San  Michele 
at  Florence,  and  a  noble  figure  by 
Beccafumi,  reading  (Duomo,  Siena)  ; 
another,  seated  and  reading,  by  Ul- 
rich  Mair,  in  the  Belvedere,  Vienna. 


St.  Philip  (Nanni  di  Banco) 


Subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Philip, 
whether  as  single  pictures  or  in  a 
series,  are  also  rarely  met  with.  As  he  was  the  first  called  by 
our  Saviour  to  leave  all  and  follow  Him,  and  his  vocation 
therefore  a  festival  in  the  Church,  it  must,  I  think,  have  been 
treated  apart ;  but  I  have  not  met  with  it.  I  know  of  but 
three  historical  subjects  taken  from  his  life  :  — 

1.  Bonifazio  [in  the  Venice  Academy].  St.  Philip  stands 
before  the  Saviour:  the  attitude  of  the  latter  is  extremely 
dignified,  that  of  Philip  supplicatory ;  the  other  apostles  are 
seen  in  the  background :  the  coloring  and  expression  of  the 
whole  like  Titian.  The  subject  of  this  splendid  picture  is 
expressed  by  the  inscription  underneath  (John  xiv.  14)  : 
"  Domine,  ostende  nobis  Patrem,  et  sufficit  nobis."  "  Philippe, 
qui  videt  me,  videt  et  Patrem  meum :  ego  et  Pater  unum  sumus." 


ST.   BARTHOLOMEW  237 

2.  St.  Philip  exorcises  the  serpent.     The  scene  is  the  inte- 
rior of  a  temple,  an  altar  with  the  statue  of  the  god  Mars  :  a 
serpent,  creeping  from  beneath  the  altar,  slays  the  attendants 
with  his  poisonous  and  fiery  breath.     The  ancient  fresco  in 
his  chapel  at  Padua,  described  by  Lord  Lindsay,  is  extremely 
animated,  but  far  inferior  to  the  same  subject  in  the  Santa 
Croce  at  Florence  by  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,1  where  the  dignified 
attitude  of  the  apostle,  and  the  group  of  the  king's  son  dying 
in  the  arms  of  the  attendants,  are  admirably  effective  and  dra- 
matic.    St.  Philip,  it  must  be  observed,  was  the  patron  saint  of 
the  painter. 

3.  The  Crucifixion  of  St.  Philip.    According  to  the  old  Greek 
traditions,  he  was  crucified  with  his  head  downwards,  and  he 
is  so  represented  on  the  gates  of  San  Paolo  ;  also  in  an  old 
picture  over  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Philippe  d' Alen^on ;  where 
his  patron,  St.  Philip,  is  attached  to  the  cross  with  cords,  and 
head  downwards,  like  St.  Peter  (Rome,  S.  Maria-in-Trastevere. 
A.  D.  1397)  ;  but  in  the  old  fresco  by  Giusto  da  Padova  he 
is  crucified  in  the  usual  manner,  arrayed  in  a  long  red  garment 
which  des«ends  to  his  feet.2 

It  is  necessary  to  avoid  confounding  St.  Philip  the  apostle 
with  St.  Philip  the  deacon.  It  was  Philip  the  deacon  who 
baptized  the  chamberlain  of  Queen  Candace,  though  the  action 
has  sometimes  been  attributed  to  Philip  the  apostle.  The 
incident  of  the  baptism  of  the  Ethiopian,  taking  place  in  the 
road,  by  running  water,  "  on  the  way  that  goeth  down  from 
Jerusalem  to  Gaza,"  has  been  introduced  into  several  beauti- 
ful landscapes  with  much  picturesque  effect.  Claude  has  thus 
treated  it,  Salvator  Rosa,  Jan  Both,  in  a  most  beautiful  pic- 
ture in  the  Queen's  Gallery,  Rembrandt,  Cuyp,  and  others. 

ST.  BARTHOLOMEW 

Lat.  S.  Bartholomews.     Ital.  San  Bartolomeo.     Fr.  St.  Barthelemi. 
(Aug.  24.) 

As  St.  Bartholomew  is  nowhere  mentioned  in  the  canoni- 
cal books,  except  by  name  in  enumerating  the  apostles,  there 

1  [As  there  are  no  frescoes  by  Filippo  Lippi  at  Santa  Croce,  and  no  painting 
there  treating  the  subject  mentioned,  reference  is  evidently  made  to  Filippino 
Lippi's  fresco  in  the  chapel  of  Filippo  Strozzi  at  S.  Maria  Novella.] 

2  [The  reference  is  probably  to  the  series  of  the  life  of  St.  Philip  in  the  chapel 
of  St.  Luke,  basilica  of  St.  Anthony,  Padua.] 


238 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


has  been  large  scope  for 
legendary  story,  but  in 
works  of  Art  he  is  not  a 
popular  saint.  According 
to  one  tradition,  he  was 
the  son  of  a  husbandman ; 
according  to  another,  he  was 
the  son  of  a  prince  Ptolo- 
meus.  After  tHe  ascension 
of  Christ  he  travelled  into 
India,  even  to  the  confines 
of  the  habitable  world,  car- 
rying*with  him  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew ;  returning 
thence,  he  preached  in  Ar- 
menia and  Cilicia  ;  and  com- 
ing to  the  city  of  Albanopo- 
lis,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  as  a  Christian  :  he 
was  first  flayed-  and  then 
crucified. 

In  single  figures  and  de- 
votional pictures,  St.  Bar- 
tholomew sometimes  carries  in  one  hand  a  book,  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew ;  but  his  peculiar  attribute  is  a  large  knife,  the 
instrument  of  his  martyrdom.  The  legends  describe  him  as 
having  a  quantity  of  strong  black  hair  and  a  bushy  grizzled 
beard ;  and  this  portrait  being  followed  very  literally  by  the  old 
German  and  Flemish  painters,  gives  him,  with  his  large  knife, 
the  look  of  a  butcher.  In  the  Italian  pictures,  though  of  a 
milder  and  more  dignified  appearance,  he  has  frequently  black 
hair ;  and  sometimes  dark  and  resolute  features ;  yet  the  same 
legend  describes  him  as  of  a  cheerful  countenance,  wearing  a 
purple  robe  and  attended  by  angels.  Sometimes  St.  Bar- 
tholomew has  his  own  skin  hanging  over  his  arm,  as  among 
the  saints  in  Michael  Angelo's  Last  Judgment  [Sistine  Chapel, 
Rome],  where  he  is  holding  forth  his  skin  in  one  hand,  and 
grasping  his  knife  in  the  other :  and  in  the  statue  by  Marco 
Agrati  in  the  Milan  Cathedral,  famous  for  its  anatomical  preci- 
sion and  its  boastful  inscription,  "Non  me  Praxiteles  sed  Marcus 
pinxit  Agratis."  I  found  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris 


St.  Bartholomew  (Albert  Diirer) 


ST.   THOMAS  239 

a  picture  of  St.  Bartholomew  healing  the  Princess  of  Armenia. 
With  this  exception,  I  know  not  any  historical  subject  where 
this  apostle  is  the  principal  figure,  except  his  revolting  and  cruel 
martyrdom.  In  the  early  Greek  representation  on  the  gates  of 
San  Paolo,  he  is  affixed  to  a  cross,  or  rather  to  a  post  with  a 
small  transverse  bar  at  top,  to  which  his  hands  are  fastened 
above  his  head ;  an  executioner,  with  a  knife  in  his  hand,  stoops 
at  his  feet.  This  is  very  different  from  the  representations  in 
the  modern  schools.  The  best,  that  is  to  say,  the  least  dis- 
gusting, representation  I  have  met  with,  is  a  small  picture  by 
Agostino  Caracci,  in  the  Sutherland  Gallery,  which  once 
belonged  to  King  Charles  I.  :  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  painter 
had  the  antique  Marsyas  in  his  mind.  That  dark  ferocious 
spirit,  Kibera,  found  in  it  a  theme  congenial  with  his  own 
temperament;  *  he  has  not  only  painted  it  several  times  with  a 
horrible  truth  and  power,  but  etched  it  elaborately  with  his 
own  hand :  a  small  picture,  copied  from  the  etching,  is  at 
Hampton  Court  [attributed  to  L.  Nottery]. 

ST.  THOMAS 

Ital.  San  Tomaso.     Sp.  San  Tome.     Patron  Saint  of  Portugal 
and  Parma.     (Dec.  21.) 

St.  Thomas,  called  Didymus  (the  twin),  takes,  as  apostle, 
the  seventh^place.  He  was  a  Galilean  and  a  fisherman,  and 
we  find  him  distinguished  among  the  apostles  on  two  occasions 
recorded  in  the  Gospel. '  "When  Jesus  was  going  up  to  Beth- 
any, being  then  in  danger  from  the  Jews,  Thomas  said,  "Let 
us  also  go,  that  we  may  die  with  Him."  (John  xi.  16,  xx.  25.) 
After  the  resurrection,  he  showed  himself  unwilling  to  believe 
in  the  reappearance  of  the  crucified  Saviour  without  ocular 
demonstration :  this  incident  is  styled  the  Incredulity  of 
Thomas.  From  these  two  incidents  we  may  form  some  idea 
of  his  character :  courageous  and  affectionate,  but  not  inclined 
to  take  things  for  granted  ;  or,  as  a  French  writer  expresses  it, 
"  brusque  et  resolu,  mais  d'un  esprit  exigeant."  After  the 
ascension,  St.  Thomas  travelled  into  the  East,  preaching  the 

1  [See  Stirling-Maxwell's  Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain,  p.  891,  for  de- 
scription of  Ribera's  Flaying  of  St.  Bartholomew  in  Madrid  Gallery.  Other 
paintings  of  the  same  subject  by  Ribera  are  in  Berlin,  Dresden,  Munich,  and 
Florence.] 


240 


THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 


Gospel  in  far  distant  countries  towards  the  rising  sun.  It  is 
a  tradition  received  in  the  Church,  that  he  penetrated  as  far  as 
India ;  that  there  meeting  with  the  three  Wise  Men  of  the 
East,  he  baptized  them ;  that  he  founded  a  church  in  India, 
and  suffered  martyrdom  there.  It  is  related  that  the  Portu- 
guese found  at  Meliapore  an  ancient  inscription,  purporting 
that  St.  Thomas  had  been  pierced  with  a  lance  at  the  foot  of 
a  cross  which  he  had  erected  in  that  city,  and  that  in  1523  his 
body  was  found  there  and  transported  to  Goa. 

In  Correggio's  fresco  of  St.  Thomas  as  protector  of  Parma 
he  is  surrounded  by  angels  bearing  exotic  fruits,  as  expressing 
his  ministry  in  India. 

There  are  a  number  of  extravagant  and  poetical  legends 
relating  to  St.  Thomas.  I  shall  here  limit  myself  to  those 

which  were  adopted  in  ecclesi- 
astical decoration,  and  treated 
by  the  artists  of  the  middle 
ages. 

When  St.  Thomas  figures  as 
apostle,  alone  or  with  others, 
in  all  the  devotional  represen- 
tations which  are  not  prior  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  he  car- 
ries as  his  attribute  the  build- 
er's rule,  of  this  form  — 

Now,  as 
he  was  a 
fisherman, 
and  neither 
a  carpenter 
nor  a  ma- 
son, the  ori- 
gin of  this  attribute  must  be 
sought  in  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular legends  of  which  he  is  the 
subject. 

St.  Thomas  (Liu-as  van  Lcyden)  "  When    St-  Thomas   was   at 

Cesarea,  our  Lord  appeared  to 

him  and  said,  '  The  King  of  the  Indies,  Gondoforus,  hath 
sent  his  provost  Abanes  to  seek  for  workmen  well  versed  in 
the  science  of  architecture,  who  shall  build  for  him  a  palace 


ST.   THOMAS  241 

finer  than  that  of  the  Emperor  of  Rome.  Behold,  now  I  will 
send  thee  to  him.'  And  Thomas  went,  and  Gondoforus  com- 
manded him  to  build  for  him  a  magnificent  palace,  and  gave 
him  much  gold  and  silver  for  the  purpose.  The  king  went 
into  a  distant  country,  and  was  absent  for  two  years  ;  and  St. 
Thomas  meanwhile,  instead  of  building  a  palace,  distributed 
all  the  treasures  intrusted  to  him  among  the  poor  and  sick  ; 
and  when  the  king  returned,  he  was  full  of  wrath,  and  he 
commanded  that  St.  Thomas  should  be  seized  and  cast 
into  prison,  and  he  meditated  for  him  a  horrible  death. 
Meantime  the  brother  of  the  king  died  ;  and  the  king  resolved 
to  erect  for  him  a  most  magnificent  tomb ;  but  the  dead  man, 
after  that  he  had  been  dead  four  days,  suddenly  arose  and  sat 
upright,  and  said  to  the  king,  (  The  man  whom  thou  wouldst 
torture  is  a  servant  of  God :  behold,  I  have  been  in  Paradise, 
and  the  angels  showed  to  me  a  wondrous  palace  of  gold  and 
silver  and  precious  stones,'  and  they  said,  '  This  is  the  palace 
that  Thomas  the  architect  hath  built  for  thy  brother  King 
Gondoforus.'  And  when  the  king  heard  these  words,  he 
ran  to  the  prison,  and  delivered  the  apostle ;  and  Thomas 
said  to  him,  '  Knowest  thou  not  that  those  who  would  possess 
heavenly  things  have  little  care  for  the  things  of  this  earth  ? 
There  are  in  heaven  rich  palaces  without  number,  which  were 
prepared  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  for  those  who  pur- 
chase the  possession  through  faith  and  charity.  Thy  riches, 
0  King,  may  prepare  the  way  for  thee  to  such  a  palace,  but 
they  cannot  follow  thee  thither.' '  (Legenda  Aurea.) 

The  builder's  rule  in  the  hand  of  St.  Thomas  characterizes 
him  as  the  spiritual  architect  of  King  Gondoforus,  and  for  the 
same  reason  he  has  been  chosen  among  the  saints  as  patron  of 
architects  and  builders. 

There  is  in  this  legend  or  allegory,  fanciful  as  it  is,  an  obvi- 
ous beauty  and  significance,  which  I  need  not  point  out.  It 
appears  to  me  to  be-  one  of  those  many  legends  which  originally 
were  not  assumed  to  be  facts,  but  were  related  as  parables, 
religious  fictions  invented  for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  like 
our  Saviour's  stories  of  the  "  Good  Samaritan,"  the  "  Prodigal 
Son,"  etc.,  and  were  rendered  more  striking  and  impressive  by 
the  introduction  of  a  celebrated  and  exalted  personage  —  our 
Saviour,  the  Virgin,  or  one  of  the  apostles  —  as  hero  of  the 
tale.  This  beautiful  legend  of  St.  Thomas  and  King  Gondo- 


242  THE   TWELVE  APOSTLES 

forus  is  painted  on  one  of  the  windows  of  the  cathedral  at 
Bourges,  —  an  appropriate  offering  from  the  company  of  builders 
in  that  ancient  city.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  one  of  the  finest 
of  the  ancient  French  mysteries,  which  was  acted  with  great 
applause  at  Paris  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

But,  in  the  historical  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Thomas, 
the  first  place  must  be  given  to  the  one  scriptural  incident  in 
which  he  figures  as  a  principal  person.  "  The  Incredulity  of 
St.  Thomas  "  occurs  in  all  the  early  series  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
as  one  of  the  events  of  his  mission,  and  one  of  the  proofs  of 
his  resurrection.  On  the  ancient  gates  of  San  Paolo  it  is 
treated  with  great  simplicity  as  a  sacred  mystery,  St.  Thomas 
being  the  principal  personage  in  the  action,  as  the  one  whose 
conviction  was  to  bring  conviction  to  the  universe.  Christ 
stands  on  a  pedestal  surmounted  by  a  cross  ;  the  apostles  are 
ranged  on  each  side,  and  St.  Thomas,  approaching,  stretches 
forth  his  hand.  The  incident,  as  a  separate  subject,  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  later  schools  of  Italy,  and  in  the 
Flemish  schools.  The  general  treatment,  when  given  in  this 
dramatic  style,  admits  of  two  variations :  either  St.  Thomas  is 
placing  his  hand,  with  an  expression  of  doubt  and  fear,  on  the 
wounds  of  the  Saviour  ;  or,  his  doubts  being  removed,  he  is 
gazing  upwards  in  adoration  and  wonder.  Of  the  first,  one  of 
the  finest  examples  is  a  well-known  picture  by  Rubens  (Gallery 
of  Antwerp),  one  of  his  most  beautiful  works,  and  extraor- 
dinary for  the  truth  of  the  expression  in  the  countenance  of 
the  apostle,  whose  hand  is  on  the  side  of  Christ ;  St.  John 
and  St.  Peter  are  behind.  In  Vandyck's  picture  at  Peters- 
burg, St.  Thomas  stoops  to  examine  the  Saviour's  hand.  In  a 
design  ascribed  to  Raphael,  we  have  the  second  version  :  the 
look  of  astonished  conviction  in  St.  Thomas.1  Niccolo  Poussin 
has  painted  it  finely,  introducing  twelve  figures.2  Guercino's 
picture  is  celebrated,  but  he  has  committed  the  fault  of  repre- 
senting the  two  principal  figures  both  in  profile.  (Vatican 
Gallery.) 

The  legendary  subject  styled  "  La  Madonna  della  Cintola  " 
belongs  properly  to  the  legends  of  the  Virgin  [and  is  given  at 
length  in  the  "  Legends  of  the  Madonna  "],  but  as  St.  Thomas 

1  Passavant's  Rafael    [Ger.  ed.],  ii.  116. 

2  Eng.  by  Audran. 


ST.   THOMAS  243 

is  always  a  principal  personage  I  shall  mention  it  here.  The 
legend  relates  that  when  the  Madonna  ascended  into  heaven, 
in  the  sight  of  the  apostles,  Thomas  was  absent ;  but  after 
three  days  he  returned,  and.  doubting  the  truth  of  her  glorious 
translation,  he  desired  that  her  tomb  should  be  opened  ;  which 
was  done,  and  lo !  it  was  found  empty.  Then  the  Virgin,  tak- 
ing pity  on  his  weakness  and  want  of  faith,  threw  down  to 
him  her  girdle,  that  this  tangible  proof  remaining  in  his  hands 
might  remove  all  doubts  forever  from  his  mind :  hence  in 
many  pictures  of  the  Assumption  and  Coronation  of  the  Virgin, 
St.  Thomas  is  seen  below  holding  the  sacred  girdle  in  his  hand. 
For  instance,  in  Raphael's  beautiful  "  Coronation "  in  the 
Vatican  ;  and  in  Correggio's  "  Assumption  "  at  Parma,  where 
St.  Thomas  holds  the  girdle,  and  another  apostle  kisses  it. 

The  belief  that  the  girdle  is  preserved  in  the  Cathedral 
at  Pistoia  has  rendered  this  legend  a  popular  subject  with 
the  Florentine  painters ;  and  we  find  it  treated,  not  merely 
as  an  incident  in  the  scene  of  the  Assumption,  but  in  a  man- 
ner purely  mystic  and  devotional.  Thus,  in  a  charming  bas- 
relief  by  Luca  della  Robbia,1  the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  a  choir 
of  angels,  presents  her  girdle  to  the  apostle.  In  a  beautiful 
picture  by  Granacci  (Uffizi,  Florence),  the  Virgin  is  seated  on 
the  clouds  ;  beneath  is  her  empty  sepulchre  :  on  one  side 
kneels  St.  Thomas,  who  receives  with  reverence  the  sacred 
girdle  ;  on  the  other  kneels  the  Archangel  Michael.  In  sim- 
plicity of  arrangement,  beauty  of  expression,  and  tender  har- 
mony of  color,  this  picture  has  seldom  been  exceeded.  Gra- 
nacci has  again  treated  this  subject,  and  St.  Thomas  receives 
the  girdle  in  the  presence  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  James 
Major,  St.  Lawrence,  and  St.  Bartholomew.  [The  picture  is 
in  the  Rucellai  Palace,  Florence.]  We  have  the  same  sub- 
ject by  Paolino  da  Pistoia  ;  by  Sogliani ;  and  by  Mainardi,  a 
large  and  very  fine  fresco  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  at 
Florence. 

A  poetical  and  truly  mystical  version  of  this  subject  is  that 
wherein  the  Infant  Saviour,  seated  or  standing  on  his  mother's 
knee,  looses  her  girdle  and  presents  it  to  St.  Thomas.  Of  this 
I  have  seen  several  examples  ;  one  in  the  Duomo  at  Viterbo. 

In  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas,  several  idolaters  pierce 

1  [This  bas-relief,  which  is  in  the  Florence  Academy,  is  attributed  by  Cava- 
lucci  and  Molinier  to  Andrea  della  Robbia.] 


244  THE   TWELVE  APOSTLES 

him  through  with  lances  and  javelins.  It  was  so  represented 
on  the  doors  of  San  Paolo,  with  four  figures  only.  Rubens, 
in  his  large  picture,  has  followed  the  legend  very  exactly  ;  St. 
Thomas  embraces  the  cross,  at  the  foot  of  which  he  is  about  to 
fall,  transfixed  by  spears.  A  large  picture  in  the  gallery  of* 
Count  Harrach  at  Vienna,  called  there  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Jude,  I  believe  to  represent  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas. 
Two  of  the  idolatrous  priests  pierce  him  with  lances.  Albert 
Diirer,  in  his  beautiful  print  of  St.  Thomas,  represents  him 
holding  the  lance,  the  instrument  of  his  martyrdom :  but  this 
is  very  unusual. 

The  eighth  in  the  order  of  the  Apostles  is  the  Evangelist  ST. 
MATTHEW,  of  whom  I  have  spoken  at  length. 

ST.  JAMES  MINOR 

Lai.  S.  Jacobus   Frater   Domini.     Gr.  Adelphotheos.     Ilal.  San 
Jacopo  or  Giacomo  Minore.     Fr.  St.  Jacques  Mineur.     (May  1.) 

The  ninth  is  St.  James  Minor,  or  the  Less,  called  also  the 
Just :  he  was  a  near  relative  of  Christ,  being  the  son  of  Mary, 
the  wife  of  Cleophas,  who  was  the  sister  of  the  Virgin  Mary  ; 
hence  he  is  styled  "  the  Lord's  brother."  Nothing  particular 
is  related  of  him  till  after  the  ascension.  He  is  regarded  as 
first  Christian  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  venerated  for  his  self- 
denial,  his  piety,  his  wisdom,  and  his  charity.  These  charac- 
teristics are  conspicuous  in  the  beautiful  Epistle  which  bears 
his  name.  Having  excited,  by  the  fervor  of  his  teaching,  the 
fury  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  particularly  the  enmity 
of  the  high  priest  Ananus,  they  flung  him  down  from  a  terrace 
or  parapet  of  the  Temple,  and  one  of  the  infuriated  populace 
below  beat  out  his  brains  with  a  fuller's  club. 

In  single  figures  and  devotional  pictures,  St.  James  is  gen- 
erally leaning  on  this  club,  the  instrument  of  his  martyrdom. 
According  to  an  early  tradition,  he  so  nearly  resembled  our 
Lord  in  person,  in  features  and  deportment,  that  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  them.  "  The  Holy  Virgin  herself,"  says 
the  legend,  "  had  she  been  capable  of  error,  might  have  mis- 
taken one  for  the  other  ;  "  and  this  exact  resemblance  rendered 
necessary  the  kiss  of  the  traitor  Judas,  in  order  to  point  out 
his  victim  to  the  soldiers. 


ST.   JAMES   MINOR 


245 


This  characteristic  resemblance  is  attended  to  in  the  earliest 
and  best  representations  of  St.  James,  and  by  this  he  may 
usually  be  distinguished  when  he  does  not  "bear  his  club,  which 
is  often  a  thick  stick  or  staff.  With  the  exception  of  those 
Scripture  scenes  in  which  the  apostles  are  present,  I  have  met 
with  few  pictures  in  which  St. 
James  Minor  is  introduced  :  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  been 
popular  as  a  patron  saint.  The 
event  of  his  martyrdom  occurs 
very  seldom,  and  is  very  liter- 
ally rendered :  the  scene  is  a 
court  of  the  Temple,  with  ter- 
races and  balconies ;  he  is  fall- 
ing, or  has  fallen,  to  the  ground, 
and  one  of  the  crowd  lifts  up 
the  club  to  smite  him. 

Ignorant  artists  have  in  some 
instances  confounded  St.  James 
Major  and  St.  James  Minor. 
The  Cappella  dei  Belludi  at  Pa- 
dua, already  mentioned,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Philip  and  St. 
James,  contains  a  series  of  fres- 
coes from  the  life  of  St.  James 
Minor,  in  which  are  some  of 
the  miraculous  incidents  attrib- 
uted in  the  "Legenda  Aurea" 
to  St.  James  Major. 

1.  The  Council  of  the  Apostles  held  at  Jerusalem,  in  which 
St.  James  was  nominated  chief  or  bishop  of  the  infant  Church. 
2.  Our  Saviour  after  His  resurrection  appears  to  St.  James, 
who  had  vowed  not  to  eat  till  he  should  see  Christ.1  3.  St. 
James  thrown  down  from  the  pulpit  in  the  court  of  the  Tem- 

1  "  Very  soon  after  the  Lord  was  risen,  he  went  to  James,  and  showed  him- 
self to  him.  For  James  had  solemnly  sworn  that  he  would  eat  no  bread  from 
the  time  that  he  had  drunk  the  cup  of  the  Lord  till  he  should  see  him  risen 
from  among  them  that  sleep.  'Bring,'  saith  the  Lord,  'a  table  and  bread.' 
He  took  bread,  and  blessed  and  brake  it,  and  then  gave  it  to  James  the  Just, 
and  said  to  him,  'My  brother,  eat  thy  bread;  for  the  Son  of  man  is  risen 
from  among  them  that  sleep.'  "  St.  Jerome,  as  quoted  in  Lardner,  Lives  of 
the  Apostles,  chap.  xvi. 


St.  James  Minor  (Martin  Schoen) 


246  THE  TWELVE   APOSTLES 

pie.  4.  He  is  slain  by  the  fuller.  5.  A  certain  merchant  is 
stript  of  all  his  goods  by  a  tyrant,  and  cast  into  prison.  He 
implores  the  protection  of  St.  James,  who,  leading  him  to  the 
summit  of  the  tower,  commands  the  tower  to  bow  itself  to  the 
ground,  and  the  merchant  steps  from  it  and  escapes :  or,  ac- 
cording to  the  version  followed  in  the  fresco,  the  apostle  lifts 
the  tower  on  one  side  from  its  foundation,  and  the  prisoner 
escapes  from  under  it,  like  a  mouse  out  of  a  trap.  6.  A  poor 
pilgrim,  having  neither  money  nor  food,  fell  asleep  by  the 
wayside,  and,  on  waking,  found  that  St.  James  had  placed 
beside  him  a  loaf  of  bread,  which  miraculously  supplied  his 
wants  to  the  end  of  his  journey.  These  two  last  stories  are 
told  also  of  St.  James  of  Galicia,  but  I  have  never  met  with 
any  pictures  of  his  life  in  which  they  are  included.  Here 
they  undoubtedly  refer  to  St.  James  Minor,  the  chapel  being 
consecrated  to  his  honor. 

ST.  SIMON  ZELOTES  (OR  THE  ZEALOT).     ST.  JUDE  (THAD- 
DEUS,  OK  LEBBEUS) 

Ital.  San  Simone  ;  San  Taddeo.     Fr.  St.  Simon  le  Zele ;  St.  Thad- 
dee.     Ger.  Judas  Thaddaus.     (Oct.  28.) 

The  uncertainty,  contradiction,  and  confusion  which  I  find 
in  all  the  ecclesiastical  biographies  relative  to  these  apostles 
make  it  impossible  to  give  any  clear  account  of  them ;  and  as 
subjects  of  Art  they  are  so  unimportant,  and  so  uninteresting, 
that  it  is  the  less  necessary.  According  to  one  tradition,  they 
were  the  same  mentioned  by  Matthew  as  our  Lord's  brethren 
or  kinsmen.  But,  according  to  another  tradition,  they  were 
not  the  same,  but  two  brothers  who  were  among  the  shepherds 
to  whom  the  angel  and  the  heavenly  host  revealed  the  birth  of 
the  Saviour.  Those  painters  who  followed  the  first  tradition 
represent  Simon  and  Jude  as  young,  or  at  least  in  the  prime 
of  life.  Those  who  adopt  the  second  represent  them  as  very 
old,  taking  it  for  granted  that  at  the  birth  of  Christ  they  must 
have  been  full-grown  men  ;  and  this,  I  think,  is  the  legend 
usually  followed. .  It  seems,  however,  generally  agreed,  that 
they  preached  the  Gospel  together  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia, 
and  together  suffered  martyrdom  in  Persia  :  in  what  manner 
they  suffered  is  unknown ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  St.  Simon 
was  sawn  asunder,  and  St.  Thaddeus  killed  with  a  halberd. 


ST.   SIMON  ZELOTES  247 

In  a  series  of  apostles,  St.  Simon  bears  the  saw,  and  St. 
Thaddeus  a  halberd.  In  Greek  Art,  Jude  and  Thaddeus  are 
two  different  persons.  Jude  is  represented  young,  Thaddeus 
old;  St.  Simon  in  extreme  old  age,  with  a  bald  head,  and 
long  white  beard.  In  the  Greek  representation  of  his  martyr- 
dom, he  is  affixed  to  a  cross  exactly  like  that  of  our  Saviour, 
so  that,  but  for  the  superscription  O  CIMON,  he  might  be 
mistaken  for  Christ.  I  do  not  know  of  any  separate  picture 
of  these  apostles. 

There  is,  however,  one  manner  of  treating  them,  with  refer- 
ence to  their  supposed  relationship  to  our  Saviour,  which  is 
peculiarly  beautiful.  Assuming  that  the  three  last-named  apos- 
tles, James  the  son  of  Mary  Cleophas,  Simon  and  Jude,  Jo- 
seph or  Joses  the  Just,  also  named  by  Matthew  among  the 
brethren  of  Christ ;  together  with  James  and  John,  the  sons  of 
Mary  Salome,  were  all  nearly  related  to  the  Saviour ;  it  was 
surely  a  charming  idea  to  group  as  children  around  Him  in 
His  infancy  those  who  were  afterwards  called  to  be  the  chosen 
ministers  of  His  Word.  Christianity,  which  has  glorified 
womanhood  and  childhood,  never  suggested  to  the  Christian 
artist  a  more  beautiful  subject,  nor  one  which  it  would  be  more 
easy,  by  an  unworthy  or  too  picturesque  treatment,  to  render 
merely  pretty  and  commonplace.  This  version,  however,  of 
the  Sacra  Famiglia  is  rarely  met  with.  There  is  an  example 
in  the  Louvre,  signed  "  Laurentius  "  (Lorenzo  di  Pavia,  A.  D. 
1513),  which  is  remarkable  as  a  religious  representation  ; 
but  the  most  beautiful  instance  of  this  treatment  is  a  chef- 
d'oeuvre  of  Perugino,  in  the  Muse'e  at  Marseilles.  In  the 
centre  is  the  Virgin,  seated  on  a  throne ;  she  holds  the  infant 
Christ  in  her  arms.  Behind  her  is  St.  Anna,  her  two  hands 
resting  affectionately  on  the  shoulders  of  the  Virgin.  In  front, 
at  the  foot  of  the  throne,  are  two  lovely  children,  undraped, 
with  glories  round  their  heads,  on  which  are  inscribed  their 
names,  Simon  and  Thaddeus.  To  the  right  is  Mary  Salome, 
a  beautiful  young  woman,  holding  a  child  in  her  arms  —  St. 
John,  afterwards  the  evangelist.  Near  her  is  Joachim,  the 
father  of  the  Virgin.  At  his  feet  another  child,  James  Major. 
To  the  left  of  the  Virgin,  Mary  the  wife  of  Cleophas,  stand- 
ing, holds  by  the  hand  James  Minor :  behind  her,  Joseph,  the 
husband  of  the  Virgin,  and  at  his  feet  another  child,  Joseph 
(or  Joses)  or  Justus.  I  have  also  seen  this  subject  in  illu- 


248 


THE  TWELVE   APOSTLES 


minated  MSS.,  and,  however  treated,  it  is  surely  very  poetical 
and  suggestive.  (Matt.  xiii.  55  ;  Mark  xv.*40.) 

ST.  MATTHIAS 
Ital  San  Mattia.    Fr.  St.  Mathias.     (Feb.  24.) 

St.  Matthias,  who  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill  the  place  of  the 
traitor   Judas,    is   the  last  of    the  apostles.     (Acts  i.)     He 

preached  the  Gospel  in  Jti- 
dea,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
at  "the  hands  of  the  Jews, 
either  by  the  lance  or  by  the 
axe.  In  the  Italian  series 
of  the  apostles,  he  bears  as 
his  attribute  the  lance ;  in 
the  German  sets,  more  com- 
monly the  axe.  The  cere- 
mony of  choosing  St.  Mat- 
thias by  lot  is  the  subject  of 
a  mediocre  picture  by  Bos- 
chi.  St.  Denis  says  that 
the  apostles  were  directed  in 
their  choice  by  a  beam  of 
divine  splendor,  for  it  were 
impious  to  suppose  that  such 
an  election  was  made  by 
chance.  In  this  picture  of 
Boschi,  a  ray  of  light  falls 
from  heaven  on  the  head  of 
St.  Matthias. 

There  is  a  figure  of  this 
apostle  by  Cosimo  Eoselli, 
holding  a  sword  by  the 
point :  what  might  be  the 

intention  of  that  capricious  painter  it  is  now  impossible  to 
guess.  (Florence  Academy.)  Separate  pictures  of  St.  Matthias 
are  very  rare,  and  he  is  seldom  included  in  sets  of  the  apostles. 


St.  Matthias  (Raphael) 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT  249 

JUDAS  ISCARIOT 
ItaL  Giuda  Scariota.     Fr.  Judas  Iscariote. 

The  very  name  of  Judas  Iscariot  has  become  a  by-word ; 
his  person  and  character  an  eternal  type  of  impiety,  treachery, 
and  ingratitude.  We  shudder  at  the  associations  called  up  by 
his  memory  ;  his  crime,  without  a  name,  so  distances  all  pos- 
sible human  turpitude,  that  he  cannot  even  be  held  forth  as  a 
terror  to  evil-doers  ;  we  set  him  aside  as  one  cut  off ;  we  never 
think  of  him  but  in  reference  to  the  sole  and  unequalled  crime 
recorded  of  him.  Not  so  our  ancestors ;  one  should  have 
lived  in  the  middle  ages,  to  conceive  the  profound,  the  ever- 
present  horror  with  which  Judas  Iscariot  was  then  regarded. 
The  Devil  himself  did  not  inspire  the  same  passionate  hatred 
and  indignation.  Being  the  devil,  what  could  he  be  but 
devilish  ?  His  wickedness  was  according  to  his  infernal  na- 
ture :  but  the  crime  of  Judas  remains  the  perpetual  shame  and 
reproach  of  our  humanity.  The  devil  betrayed  mankind,  but 
Judas  betrayed  his  God. 

The  Gospels  are  silent  as  to  the  life  of  Judas  before  he 
became  an  apostle,  but  our  progenitors  of  the  middle  ages, 
who  could  not  conceive  it  possible  that  any  being,  however 
perverse,  would  rush  at  once  into  such  an  abyss  of  guilt,  have 
filled  up  the  omissions  of  Scripture  after  their  own  fancy. 
They  picture  Judas  as  a  wretch  foredoomed  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world,  and  prepared  by  a  long  course  of  vice  and  crime 
for  that  crowning  guilt  which  filled  the  measure  full.  Ac- 
cording to  this  legend,  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  Before 
his  mother  brought  him  forth,  she  dreamed  that  the  son  who 
lay  in  her  womb  would  be  accursed,  that  he  would  murder 
his  father,  commit  incest  with  his  mother,  and  sell  his  God. 
Terrified  at  her  dream,  she  took  counsel  with  her  husband,  and 
they  agreed  to  avert  the  threatened  calamity  by  exposing  the 
child.  As  in  the  story  of  CEdipus,  from  which,  indeed,  this 
strange  wild  legend  seems  partly  borrowed,  the  means  taken 
to  avert  the  threatened  curse  caused  its  fulfilment.  .  Judas,  at 
his  birth,  is  inclosed  in  a  chest,  and  flung  into  the  sea ;  the 
sea  casts  him  up,  and,  being  found  on  the  shore,  he  is  fostered 
by  a  certain  king  and  queen  as  their  own  son  ;  they  have, 
however,  another  son,  whom  Judas,  malignant  from  his  birth, 


250  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

beats  and  oppresses,  and  at  length  kills  in  a  quarrel  over  a 
game  at  chess.  He  then  flies  to  Judea,  where  he  enters  the 
service  of  Pontius  Pilate  as  page.  In  due  time  he  commits 
the  other  monstrous  crimes  to  which  he  was  predestined ;  and 
when  he  learns  from  his  mother  the  secret  of  his  birth,  he  is 
filled  with  a  sudden  contrition  and  terror ;  he  hears  of  the 
prophet  who  has  power  on  earth  to  forgive  sins ;  and  seeking 
out  Christ  throws  himself  at  His  feet.  Our  Saviour,  not  de- 
ceived, but  seeing  in  him  the  destined  betrayer,  and  that  all 
things  may  be  accomplished,  accepts  him  as  His  apostle  :  he 
becomes  the  seneschal  or  steward  of  Christ,  bears  the  purse, 
and  provides  for  the  common  wants.  In  this  position,  avarice, 
the  only  vice  to  which  he  was  not  yet  addicted,  takes  posses- 
sion of  his  soul,  and  makes  the  corruption  complete.  Through 
avarice  he  grudges  every  penny  given  to  the  poor,  and  when 
Mary  Magdalene  anoints  the  feet  of  our  Lord  he  is  full  of 
wrath  at  what  he  considers  the  waste  of  the  precious  perfume  : 
"  Why  was  not  this  ointment  sold  for  three  hundred  pence, 
and  given  to  the  poor  ?  This  he  said,  not  that  he  cared  for 
the  poor,  but  because  he  was  a  thief."  Through  avarice,  he 
yields  to  the  bribe  offered  by  the  Jews.  Then  follow  the 
scenes  of  the  betrayal  of  Christ,  and  the  late  repentance  and 
terrible  suicide  of  the  traitor,  as  recorded  in  Scripture.  But 
in  the  old  Mystery  of  the  "  Passion  of  Christ  "  the  repentance 
and  fate  of  Judas  are  very  dramatically  worked  out,  and  with 
all  possible  circumstances  of  horror.  When  he  beholds  the 
mild  Saviour  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Herod,  he  repents  : 
Remorse,  who  figures  as  a  real  personage,  seizes  on  the  fated 
wretch,  and  torments  him  till  in  his  agony  he  invokes  Despair. 
Despair  appears,  almost  in  the  guise  of  the  "accursed  wight" 
in  Spenser,  and,  with  like  arguments,  urges  him  to  make  away 
with  his  life  :  — 

And  brings  unto  him  swords,  rope,  poison,  fire, 

And  all  that  might  him  to  perdition  draw, 

And  bids  him  choose  what  death  he  would  desire. 

Or  in  the  more  homely  language  of   the  old  French"  mys- 
tery — 

II  faut  que  tu  passes  le  pas  ! 
Voici  dagues  et  coutelas, 
Forcettes,  poin^ons,  allumettes,  — 
Avise,  choisis  les  plus  belles, 


JUDAS   ISCARIOT  251 

Et  celles  de  meilleure  forge, 
Pour  te  couper  a  coup  la  gorge  ; 
Ou  si  tu  aimes  mieux  te  pendre, 
Voici  lacs  et  cordes  a  vendre. 

The  offer  here  of  the  bodkins  and  the  allumettes  reminds 
us  of  the  speech  of  Falconbridge  :  — 

If  thou  would'st  drown  thyself, 
Put  but  a  little  water  in  a  spoon, 
And  it  shall  be  as  all  the  ocean, 
Enough  to  stifle  such  a  villain  up. 

Judas  chooses  the  rope,  and  hangs  himself  forthwith ;  "  and 
falling  headlong,  he  burst  asunder  in  the  midst,  and  all  his 
bowels  gushed  out :  "  which  account  is  explained  by  an  early 
tradition,  that  being  found  and  cut  down,  his  body  was  thrown 
over  the  parapet  of  the  Temple  into  the  ravine  below,  and,  in 
the  fall,  was  riven  and  dashed  to  pieces. 

There  required  but  one  more  touch  of  horror  to  complete 
the  picture  ;  and  this  is  furnished  by  a  sonnet  of  Giani,  which 
I  remember  to  have  read  in  my  youth.  When  Judas  falls 
from  the  fatal  tree,  his  evil  genius  seizes  the  broken  rope,  and 
drags  him  down  to  the  seething  abyss  below :  at  his  approach, 
hell  sends  forth  a  shout  of  rejoicing;  Lucifer  smooths  his 
brow,  corrugated  Avith  fire  and  pain,  and  rises  from  his  burning 
throne  to  welcome  a  greater  sinner  than  himself  :  — 

Poi  fra  le  braccia  incateno  quel  tristo, 

E  colla  bocca  sfavillante  e  nera 

Gli  rese  il  bacio  ch'  avea  dato  a  Christo  !  * 

The  retribution  imaged  in  the  last  two  lines  borders,  I  am 
afraid,  on  a  concetto  ;  but  it  makes  one  shiver,  notwithstand- 
ing- 
Separate  representations  of  the  figure  or  of  the  life  of 
Judas  Iscariot  are  not,  of  course,  to  be  looked  for  ;  they  would 
have  been  regarded  as  profane,  as  ominous,  —  worse  than  the 
evil-eye.  In  those  Scripture  scenes  in  which  he  finds  a  place, 
it  was  the  aim  of  the  early  artists  to  give  him  a  countenance 
as  hateful,  as  expressive  of  treachery,  meanness,  malignity,  as 
their  skill  could  compass,  —  the  Italians  having  depended 
more  on  expression,  the  German  and  Spanish  painters  on  form. 

1  [In  English  :  Then  he  chained  the  arms  of  the  wicked  one,  and  with  a 
mouth  sparkling  and  bright,  returned  the  kiss  which  he  had  given  to  Christ.] 


252  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

We  have  a  conviction,  that  if  the  man  had  really  worn  such 
a  look,  such  features,  he  would  have  been  cast  out  from  the 
company  of  the  apostles ;  the  legend  already  referred  to  says 
expressly  that  Judas  was  of  a  comely  appearance,  and  was 
recommended  to  the  service  of  Pontius  Pilate  by  his  beauty 
of  person :  but  the  painters,  speaking  to  the  people  in  the 
language  of  form,  were  right  to  admit  of  no  equivocation. 
The  same  feeling  which  induced  them  to  concentrate  on  the 
image  of  the  demon  all  they  could  conceive  of  hideous  and 
repulsive,  made  them  picture  the  exterior  of  Judas  as  deformed 
and  hateful  as  the  soul  within  ;  and,  by  an  exaggeration  of  the 
Jewish  cast  of  features  combined  with  red  hair  and  beard,  they 
flattered  themselves  that  they  had  attained  the  desired  object. 
But  as  if  this  were  not  enough,  the  ancient  painters,  particu- 
larly in  the  old  illuminations,  and  in  Byzantine  Art,  represent 
Judas  as  directly  and  literally  possessed  by  the  Devil ;  some- 
times it  is  a  little  black  demon  seated  on  his  shoulder,  and 
whispering  in  his  ear  ;  sometimes  entering  his  mouth :  thus, 
in  their  simplicity,  rendering  the  words  of  the  Gospel,  "  Then 
entered  Satan  into  Judas." 

The  color  proper  to  the  dress  of  Judas  is  a  dirty  dingy 
yellow  ;  and  in  Spain  this  color  is  so  intimately  associated  with 
the  image  of  the  arch-traitor  as  to  be  held  in  universal  dis- 
like :  both  in  Spain  and  in  Italy,  malefactors  and  galley-slaves 
are  clothed  in  yellow.1  At  Venice  the  Jews  were  obliged  to 
wear  yellow  hats. 

In  some  of  the  Scriptural  scenes  in  which  Judas  is  men- 
tioned or  supposed  to  be  present,  it  is  worth  while  to  remark 
whether  the  painter  has  passed  him  over  as  spoiling  the  har- 
mony of  the  sacred  composition  by  his  intrusive  ugliness  and 
wickedness,  or  has  rendered  him  conspicuous  by  a  distinct  and 
characteristic  treatment.  In  a  picture  by  Niccolo  Frumenti 
of  the  Magdalene  at  the  feet  of  our  Saviour,  Judas  stands  in 

1  See  Ford's  Handbook  of  Spain;  also  Goethe's  Theory  of  Colors,  trans- 
lated by  Sir  C.  Eastlake.  "  When  a  yellow  color  is  communicated  to  dull 
and  coarse  surfaces,  such  as  common  cloth,  felt,  or  the  like,  on  which  it  does 
not  appear  witli  full  energy,  the  disagreeable  effect  alluded  to  is  apparent. 
By  a  slight  and  scarceh-  perceptible  change,  the  beautiful  impression  of  fire 
and  gold  is  transformed  into  one  not  undeserving  the  epithet  foul,  and  the 
color  of  honor  and  joy  reversed  to  that  of  ignominy  and  aversion.  To  this 
impression,  the  yellow  hats  of  bankrupts,  and  the  yellow  circles  on  the  man- 
tles of  Jews,  may  have  owed  their  origin."  Page  308. 


JUDAS   ISCARIOT  253 

.• 

.the  foreground,  looking  on  with  a  most  diabolical  expression 
of  grudging  malice  mingled  with  scorn ;  he  seems  to  grind  his 
teeth  as  he  says,  "  To  what  purpose  is  this  waste  ?  "  (Uffizi, 
Florence.)  [There  is  a]  beautiful  picture  of  the  washing  the 
feet  of  the  disciples  [in  the  Venice  Academy,  attributed  to 
Boccaccino]  ;  Judas  is  at  once  distinguished,  looking  askance 
with  a  wicked  sneer  on  his  face,  which  is  not  otherwise  ugly. 
In  Raphael's  composition  of  the  Magdalene  anointing  the  feet 
of  Christ,  Judas  leans  across  the  table  with  an  angry  look  of 
expostulation. 

Those  subjects  in  which  Judas  Iscariot  appears  as  a  princi- 
pal personage  follow  here. 

1.  Angelico  da  Fiesole.    (Florence  Academy.)     He  is  bribed 
by  the  Jews.     The  high  priest  pays  into  the  hand  of  Judas 
the  thirty  pieces  of  silver.     They  are  standing  before  a  door- 
way on   some   steps;  Judas  is  seen  in   profile,  and   has  the 
nimbus  as  one  of  the  apostles  :  three  persons  are  behind,  one 
of  whom  expresses  disapprobation  and  anxiety.     In  this  sub- 
ject, and  in  others  wherein  Judas  is  introduced,  Angelico  has 
not  given  him  ugly  and  deformed  features ;  but  in  the  scowl- 
ing eye  and  bent  brow  there  is  a  vicious  expression. 

In  Duccio's  series  of  the  "  Passion  of  our  Saviour,"  in  the 
Duomo  at  Siena,  he  has,  in  this  and  in  other  scenes,  repre- 
sented Judas  with  regular  and  not  ugly  features  ;  but  he  has 
a  villainous,  and  at  the  same  time  anxious,  expression,  —  he 
has  a  bad  conscience. 

The  scene  between  Judas  and  the  high  priest  is  also  given 
by  Schalken  as  a  candle-light  effect,  and  in  the  genuine  Dutch 
style. 

2.  "  Judas  betrays  his  Master  with  a  kiss."     This  subject 
will  be  noticed  at  large  in  the  Life  of  Christ.     The  early 
Italians,  in  giving  this  scene  with  much  dramatic  power,  never 
forgot  the  Scriptural  dignity  required  ;   while  the  early  Ger- 
mans, in  their  endeavor  to   render  Judas  as  odious  in  physi- 
ognomy as  in  heart,  have,  in  this  as  in   many  other  instances, 
rendered  the  awful  and  the  pathetic  merely  grotesque.      We 
must  infer  from  Scripture,  that  Judas  with  all  his  perversity, 
had  a  conscience  :   he  would  not  else  have  hanged  himself.     In 
the  physiognomy  given  to  him  by  the  old  Germans,  there  is 
no  trace  of  this  ;  he  is  an  ugly  malignant  brute,  and  nothing 
more. 


254  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

3.  Rembrandt.      "  Judas  throws  down  the  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  in  the  Temple,  and  departs."      (In  the  gallery  of  Lord 
Charlemont,  Dublin.) 

4.  "  The  remorse  of  Judas."     He  is  seated  and  in  the  act  of 
putting  the  rope  about  his  neck ;  beside  him  is  seen  the  purse 
and  the  money,  scattered  about  the  ground.     The  design  is  by 
Bloemart,  and,  from  the  Latin  inscription  underneath,  appears 
to  be  intended  as  a  warning  to  all  unrighteous  dealers. 

5.  "  Judas  hanging  on  a  tree  "  is  sometimes  introduced  into 
the  background,  in  ancient  pictures  of  the  Deposition  and  the 
Entombment :  there  is  one  in  the  Frankfort  Museum. 

6.  "  Demons  toss  the  soul  of  Judas  from  hand  to  hand  in 
the  manner  of  a  ball,"  in  an  old  French  miniature.      (Bib. 
du  Roi.)     This  is  sufficiently  grotesque  in  representation  ;  yet 
in  the  idea  there  is  a  restless,  giddy  horror  which  thrills  us. 
At  all  events,  it  is  better  than  placing  Judas  between  the  jaws 
of  Satan  with  his  legs  in  the  air,  as  Dante  has  done,  and  as 
Orcagna  in  his  Dantesque  fresco  has  very  literally  rendered  the 
description  of  the  poet.      (Florence,  S.  Maria  Novella.) 

It  is  clear  that  the  extravagant  legends  which  refer  to  Judas 
Iscariot  were  the  inventions  of  the  middle  ages,  and  are  as 
little  countenanced  by  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers  as  by 
the  Gospels.  Eusebius  says  that  "Christ  gave  like  gifts  to 
Judas  with  the  other  apostles ;  that  once  our  Saviour  had 
good  hopes  of  .him  on  account  of  the  power  of  the  free  will, 
for  Judas  was  not  of  such  a  nature  as  rendered  his  salvation 
impossible  ;  like  the  other  apostles,  he  might  have  been  in- 
structed by  the  Son  of  God,  and  might  have  been  a  sincere 
and  good  disciple."  (Quoted  in  Lardner,  vol.  viii.  p.  77.) 
The  Mahometans  believe  that  Christ  did  not  die,  that  He 
ascended  alive  into  heaven,  and  that  Judas  was  crucified  in 
His  likeness.  (Curzon,  p.  185.) 


THE  LAST  SUPPER 

Ital.  II  Cenacolo.     La  Cena.     Fr.  La  Cene.     Ger.  Das  Abendmal 

Christi. 

I  have  already  mentioned  the  principal  scenes  in  which 
the  Twelve  always  appear  together  ;  there  is,  however,  one 
event  belonging  properly  to  the  Life  of  Christ,  so  important 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  255 

in  itself,  presenting  the  Apostles  under  an  aspect  so  peculiar, 
and  throwing  so  much  interest  around  them  collectively  and 
individually,  that  I  must  bring  it  under  notice  here. 

Next  to  the  Crucifixion,  there  is  no  subject  taken  from  the 
history  of  our  redemption  so  consecrated  in  Art  as  the  Last 
Supper.  The  awful  signification  lent  to  it  by  Protestants  as 
well  as  Catholics  has  given  it  a  deep  religious  import,  and 
caused  its  frequent  representation  in  churches  ;  it  has  been, 
more  particularly,  the  appropriate  decoration  of  the  refectories 
of  convents,  hospitals,  and  other  institutions  having  a  sacred 
character.  In  our  Protestant  churches  it  is  generally  the  sub- 
ject of  the  altar-piece,  where  we  have  one. 

Besides  being  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  among  the  sacred  subjects  treated 
in  Art.  While  the  fixed  number  of  personages  introduced,  the 
divine  and  paramount  dignity  of  One  among  them,  the  well- 
known  character  of  all,  have  limited  the  invention  of  the  artist, 
they  have  tasked  to  the  utmost  his  power  of  expression.  The 
occasion,  that  of  a  repast  eaten  by  twelve  persons,  is,  under  its 
material  aspect,  so  commonplace,  and,  taken  in  the  spiritual 
sense,  so  awful,  that  to  elevate  himself  to  the  height  of  his 
theme,  while  keeping  the  ideal  conscientiously  bounded  within 
its  frame  of  circumstance,  demanded  in  the  artist  aspirations 
of  the  grandest  order,  tempered  by  the  utmost  sobriety  of  re- 
flection ;  and  the  deepest  insight  into  the  springs  of  character, 
combined  with  the  most  perfect  knowledge  of  the  indications 
of  character  as  manifested  through  form.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  it  has  been  difficult  to  succeed,  it  has  been  equally  difficult 
to  fail  signally  and  completely ;  because  the  spectator  is  not 
here,  as  in  the  crucifixion,  in  danger  of  being  perpetually 
shocked,  by  the  intrusion  of  anomalous  incidents,  and  is  always 
ready  to  supply  the  dignity  and  meaning  of  a  scene  so  familiar 
in  itself  out  of  his  own  mind  and  heart.  It  has  followed,  that 
mediocrity  has  been  more  prevalent  and  more  endurable  in  this 
than  in  any  other  of  the  more  serious  subjects  of  Art.  But 
where  excellence  has  been  in  some  few  instances  attained,  it 
has  been  attained  in  such  a  supreme  degree,  that  these  ex- 
amples have  become  a  perpetual  source  of  contemplation  and 
of  emulation,  and  rank  among  the  most  renowned  productions 
of  human  genius. 


I 

256  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

But  before  I  come  to  consider  these  analytically,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  premise  one  or  two  observations,  which  will  assist  us 
to  discrimination  in  the  general  treatment. 

Pictures  and  works  of  Art,  which  represent  the  Last  Supper 
of  our  Lord,  admit  of  the  same  classification  which  I  have 
adhered  to  generally  throughout  this  work.  Those  which 
represent  it  as  a  religious  mystery  must  be  considered  as  devo- 
tional ;  those  which  represent  it  merely  as  a  scene  in  the  pas- 
sion of  our  Saviour  are  historical.  In  the  first,  we  have  the 
spiritual  origin  of  the  Eucharist ;  in  the  second,  the  highly 
dramatic  detection  of  Judas.  It  is  evident  that  the  predomi- 
nating motif  in  each  must  be  widely  different.  In  paintings 
which  are  intended  for  the  altar,  or  for  the  chapels  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament,  we  have  the  first,  the  mystical  version  ;  it 
is  the  distribution  of  the  spiritual  food.  In  the  second  form, 
as  the  Last  Supper  eaten  by  Christ  with  His  disciples,  as  lead- 
ing the  mind  to  an  humble  and  grateful  sense  of  His  sacrifice, 
as  repressing  all  sinful  indulgence  in  food,  it  has  been  the  sub- 
ject chosen  to  decorate  the  refectory  or  common  dining-room 
of  convents. 

It  is  curious  that  on  the  Christian  sarcophagi  the  Last 
Supper  does  not  occur.  There  is,  in  the  Vatican,  a  rude  paint- 
ing taken  from  the  catacombs  representing  twelve  persons  in  a 
semicircle,  with  something  like  plates  and  dishes  before  them. 
I  could  not  determine  whether  this  was  our  Saviour  and  His 
apostles,  or  merely  one  of  those  feasts  or  suppers  instituted  by 
the  early  Christians  called  Ayapce  or  love-feasts ;  but  I  should 
think  the  latter. 

On  the  dalmatica  (deacon's  robe)  preserved  in  the  sacristy 
of  the  Vatican,  there  is,  if  the  date  be  exact  (A.  D.  795),  the 
most  ancient  representation  I  have  seen  of  the  institution  of 
the  Sacrament.  The  embroidery,  which  is  wonderfully  beauti- 
ful, is  a  copy  from  Byzantine  Art.  On  one  side,  our  Saviour 
stands  by  a  table  or  altar,  and  presents  the  cup  to  His  apostles, 
one  of  whom  approaches  in  a  reverential  attitude,  and  with  his 
hands  folded  in  his  robe  ;  on  the  other  side,  Christ  presents 
the  wafer  or  host :  so  that  we  have  the  two  separate  moments 
in  separate  groups. 

There  exists  in  the  Duomo  of  Lodi  the  most  ancient  sculp- 
tural example  of  this  subject  I  have  met  with ;  it  is  a  bas- 
relief  of  the  twelfth  century,  dated  1163,  and  fixed  in  the 


THE  LAST   SUPPER  257 

wall  to  the  left  of  the  entrance.  Christ  and  the  apostles  are 
in  a  straight  row,  all  very  much  alike ;  six  of  the  apostles  lay 
their  hands  on  their  breast,  —  "  Lord,  is  it  I  ?  "  and  Christ 
presents  the  sop  to  Judas,  who  sits  in  front,  and  is  as  ugly  as 
possible. 

Although  all  the  Byzantine  pictures  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  which  have  come  under  my  notice  repre- 
sent Christ  breaking  the  bread  or  holding  the  cup,  that  is, 
the  institution  of  the  Sacrament,  the  Greek  formula  published 
by  Didron  distinguishes  between  this  scene  and  that  of  the 
repast  in  which  Judas  is  denounced  as  a  traitor.  The  earliest 
representation  to  which  I  can  refer  in  Western  Art,  as  taking 
the  historical  form,  is  the  Cenacolo  of  Giotto,  the  oldest  and 
the  most  important  that  has  been  preserved  to  us ;  it  was 
painted  by  him  in  the  refectory  of  the  convent  of  Santa 
Croce  at  Florence.  This  refectory,  when  I  visited  it  in  1847, 
was  a  carpet  manufactory,  and  it  was  difficult  to  get  a  good 
view  of  the  fresco  by  reason  of  the  intervention  of  the  carpet- 
looms.  It  has  been  often  restored,  and  is  now  in  a  bad  state ; 
still,  enough  remains  to  understand  the  original  intention 
of  the  artist,  and  that  arrangement  which  has  since  been  the 
groundwork  of  similar  compositions.1 

A  long  table  extends  across  the  picture  from  side  to  side  : 
in  the  middle,  and  fronting  the  spectator,  sits  the  Redeemer ; 
to  the  right,  St.  John,  his  head  reclining  on  the  lap  of  Christ : 
next  to  him,  Peter ;  after  Peter,  St.  James  Major ;  thus  pla- 
cing together  the  three  favorite  disciples.  Next  to  St.  James, 
St.  Matthew,  St.  Bartholomew,  and  a  young  beardless  apostle, 
probably  St.  Philip. 

On  the  left  hand  of  our  Saviour  is  St.  Andrew ;  and  next 
to  him,  St.  James  Minor  (the  two  St.  Jameses  bearing  the 
traditional  resemblance  to  Christ)  ;  then  St.  Simon  and  St. 
Jude ;  and  lastly,  a  young  apostle,  probably  St.  Thomas. 
(The  reader  will  have  the  goodness  to  recollect  that  I  give 
this  explanation  of  the  names  and  position  of  the  eleven  apos- 
tles as  my  own,  and  with  due  deference  to  the  opinion  of 
those  who  on  a  further  study  of  the  fresco  may  differ  from 
me.)  Opposite  to  the  Saviour,  and  on  the  near  side  of  the 

1  [This  refectory  is  now  fitted  up  as  a  museum.  The  fresco  described  is  no 
longer  considered  the  work  of  Giotto,  but  is  attributed  to  some  pupil,  perhaps 
Taddeo  Gaddi.  Vide  Layard's  Kevision  of  Kugler's  Handbook,  p.  100.] 


258  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

table,  sits  Judas,  apart  from  the  rest,  and  in  the  act  of  dipping 
his  hand  into  the  dish.  It  is  evident  that  the  moment  chosen 
by  the  artist  is,  "He  that  dippeth  with  me  in  the  dish,  the 
same  shall  betray  me." 

Although  the  excuse  may  be  found  in  the  literal  adoption 
of  the  words  of  the  Gospel,1  it  appears  to  me  a  fault  to  make 
St.  John  leaning,  as  one  half  asleep,  on  the  lap  of  our  Saviour, 
after  such  words  have  been  uttered  as  must  have  roused,  or 
at  least  ought  to  have  roused,  the  young  and  beloved  apostle 
from  his  supine  attitude ;  therefore,  we  may  suppose  that 
Christ  is  about  to  speak  the  words,  but  has  not  yet  spoken 
them.  The  position  of  Judas  is  caused  by  the  necessity  of 
placing  him  sufficiently  near  to  Christ  to  dip  his  hand  in  the 
same  dish  ;  while  to  have  placed  him  on  the  same  side  of 
the  table,  so  as  to  give  him  the  precedence  over  the  more 
favored  disciples,  would  have  appeared  to  the  early  artists 
nothing  less  than  profane.  Giotto  has  paid  great  attention 
to  the  heads,  which  are  individually  characterized,  but  there 
is  little  dramatic  expression  ;  the  attention  is  not  yet  directed 
to  Judas,  who  is  seen  in  profile,  looking  up,  not  ugly  in  fea- 
ture, but  with  a  mean  vicious  countenance,  and  bent  shoulders. 

The  arrangement  of  the  table  and  figures,  so  peculiarly 
fitted  for  a  refectory,  has  been  generally  adopted  since  the 
time  of  Giotto  in  pictures  painted  for  this  especial  purpose. 
The  subject  is  placed  on  the  upper  wall  of  the  chamber ;  the 
table  extending  from  side  to  side  :  the  tables  of  the  monks 
are  placed,  as  in  the  dining-rooms  of  our  colleges,  lengthways ; 
thus  all  can  behold  the  divine  assembly,  and  Christ  appears 
to  preside  over  and  sanctify  the  meal. 

In  another  Cenacolo  [attributed  to]  Giotto,  which  forms 
one  of  the  scenes  in  the  history  of  Christ,  he  has  given  us 
a  totally  different  version  of  the  subject ;  and,  not  being 
intended  for  a  refectory,  but  as  an  action  or  event,  it  is  more 
dramatic.  It  is  evident  that  our  Saviour  has  just  uttered  the 
words,  "  He  that  dippeth  with  me  in  the  dish,  the  same  shall 
betray  me."  Judas,  who  has  mean,  ugly,  irregular  features, 
looks  up  alarmed,  and  seems  in  the  act  of  rising  to  escape. 
One  apostle  (Philip,  I  think)  points  at  him,  and  the  attention 

1  The  Greek  expression,  "leaning  on  His  bosom,  or  on  His  lap,"  is  not,  I 
believe,  to  be  taken  literally,  being  used  to  signify  an  intimate  and  affectionate 
intercourse. 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  259 

of  all  is  more  or  less  directed  to  him.  This  would  be  a  fault 
if  the  subject  were  intended  for  a  refectory,  or  to  represent  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  But  here,  where  the  subject  is 
historical,  it  is  a  propriety.  (Florence  Academy.) 

The  composition  of  Duccio  of  Siena,  in  the  Duomo  at 
Siena,  must  have  been  nearly  contemporary  with,  if  it  did  not 
precede,  those  of  Giotto  (A.  D.  1308)  ;  it  is  quite  different, 
quite  original  in  motif  and  arrangement.  Seven  apostles  sit 
on  the  same  side  with  Christ,  and  five  opposite  to  Him,  turn- 
ing their  backs  on  the  spectator ;  the  faces  are  seen  in  profile. 
The  attitude  of  St.  John,  leaning  against  our  Saviour  Avith 
downcast  eyes,  is  much  more  graceful  than  in  the  composition 
of  Giotto.  St.  Peter  is  on  the  right  of  Christ ;  next  to  him 
St.  James  Minor :  two  young  apostles  sit  at  the  extreme  ends 
of  the  table,  whom  I  suppose  to  be  St.  Philip  and  St.  Thomas : 
the  other  apostles  I  am  unable  to  discriminate,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Judas,  who,  with  regular  features,  has  a  characteristic 
scowl  on  his  brow.  Christ  holds  out  a  piece  of  bread  in  His 
hand  :  two  of  the  apostles  likewise  hold  bread,  and  two  others 
hold  a  cup ;  the  rest  look  attentive  or  pensive,  but  the  general 
character  of  the  heads  is  deficient  in  elevation.  The  moment 
chosen  may  be  the  distribution  of  the  bread  and  wine ;  but, 
to  me,  it  rather  expresses  the  commencement  of  the  meal,  and 
our  Saviour's  address :  "  With  desire  have  I  desired  to  eat 
this  passover  with  you  before  I  suffer."  (Luke  xxii.  15.) 
The  next  compartment  of  the  same  series,  which  represents  the 
apostles  seated  in  a  group  before  Christ,  and  listening  with 
upturned  faces  and  the  most  profound  attention  to  His  last 
words,  has  much  more  of  character,  solemnity,  and  beauty 
than  the  Last  Supper.  Judas  is  here  omitted  ;  "  for  he,  hav- 
ing received  the  sop,  went  immediately  out." 

Angelico  da  Fiesole,  in  his  Life  of  Christ,  has  been  careful 
to  distinguish  between  the  detection  of  Judas  and  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Eucharist.  (In  the  series  of  compositions  from 
the  Life  of  Christ,  now  in  the  Academy  at  Florence ;  beauti- 
fully and  faithfully  engraved  by  P.  Nocchi.)  He  has  given 
us  both  scenes.  In  the  first  compartment,  John  is  leaning 
down  with  his  face  to  the  Saviour ;  the  back  of  his  head  only 
is  seen,  and  he  appears  too  unmindful  of  what  is  going  for- 
ward. The  other  apostles  are  well  discriminated,  the  usual 
type  strictly  followed  in  Peter,  Andrew,  James  Major  and 


260  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

James  Minor.  To  the  right  of  Christ  are  Peter,  Andrew, 
Bartholomew;  to  the  left,  James  Minor.  Four  turn  their 
backs,  and  two  young  apostles  stand  on  each  side,  —  I  pre- 
sume Thomas  and  Philip ;  they  seem  to  be  waiting  on  the 
rest :  Judas  dips  his  hand  in  the  dish.  I  suppose  the  moment 
to  be  the  same  as  in  the  composition  of  Duccio. 

But  in  the  next  compartment  the  motif  is  different.  All 
have  risen  from  table ;  it  is  no  longer  a  repast,  it  is  a'  sacred 
mystery ;  Christ  is  in  the  act  of  administering  the  bread  to 
St.  John ;  all  kneel ;  and  Judas  is  seen  kneeling  behind 
Christ,  near  an  open  door,  and  apart  from  the  rest,  as  if  he 
were  Avatching  for  the  opportunity  to  escape.  To  dispose  of 
Judas  in  this  holy  ceremony  is  always  a  difficulty.  To  repre- 
sent him  as  receiving  with  the  rest  the  sacred  rite  is  an  offence 
to  the  pious.  The  expression  used  by  St.  John  (xii.  30), 
"  After  he  had  received  the  sop  he  went  out,"  implies  that 
Judas  was  not  present  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  which  succeeded 
the  celebration  of  the  paschal  supper.  St.  Luke  and  St. 
Mark,  neither  of  whom  was  present,  leave  us  to  suppose  that 
Judas  partook,  with  the  other  disciples,  of  the  mystic  bread 
and  wine ;  yet  we  can  hardly  believe  that,  after  having  been 
pointed  out  as  the  betrayer,  the  conscience-stricken  Judas 
should  remain  to  receive  the  Eucharist.  Sometimes  he  is 
omitted  altogether ;  sometimes  he  is  stealing  out  at  the  door. 
In  the  composition  of  Luca  Signorelli,  which  I  saw  at  Cor- 
tona,  all  the  twelve  apostles  are  kneeling ;  Christ  is  distribut- 
ing the  wafer ;  and  Judas,  turning  away  with  a  malignant 
look,  puts  his  wafer  into  his  satchel.  In  the  composition  of 
Palmezzano,  in  the  Duomo  at  Forli,  our  Saviour  stands,  hold- 
ing a  plate,  and  is  in  the  act  of  presenting  the  wafer  to  Peter, 
who  kneels :  St.  John  stands  by  the  side  of  Christ,  holding 
the  cup ;  Judas  is  in  the  background  ;  he  kneels  by  the  door, 
and  seems  to  be  watching  for  the  opportunity  to  steal  away. 

The  fine  composition,  fine  also  in  sentiment  and  character, 
of  Ghirlandajo,  was  painted  for  the  small  refectory  in  the 
San  Marco  at  Florence.  The  arrangement  is  ingenious ;  the 
table  is  of  what  we  call  the  horseshoe  form,  which  allows  all 
the  figures  to  face  the  spectator ;  and  at  the  same  time  takes 
up  less  room  than  where  the  table  runs  across  the  picture  from 
side  to  side.  Judas  sits  in  front,  alone ;  Christ  has  just 
designated  him.  "  He  it  is  to  whom  I  shall  give  the  sop, 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  261 

when  I  have  dipped  it."  (John  xiii.  26.)  Judas  holds  the 
sop  in  his  hand,  with  an  alarmed  conscious  look.  Behind  sits 
an  ill-omened  cat,  probably  intended  for  the  fiend.  John,  to 
the  left  of  Christ,  appears  to  have  swooned  away.  The  other 
apostles  express,  in  various  ways,  amazement  and  horror. 

It  has  been  a  question  among  critics,  whether  the  purse 
ought  to  be  placed  in  the  hand  of  Judas  when  present  at  the 
Last  Supper,  because  it  is  usually  understood  as  containing 
the  thirty  pieces  of  silver :  but  this  is  a  mistake  ;  and  it  leads 
to  the  mistake  of  representing  him  as  hiding  the  purse,  as  if  it 
contained  the  price  of  his  treachery.  Judas  carries  the  purse 
openly,  for  he  was  the  steward,  or  purse-bearer  of  the  party : 
"  he  had  the  bag,  and  bare  what  was  put  therein  "  (John  xii. 
6,  xiii.  29)  :  and  as  the  money-bag  is  also  the  attribute  of  St. 
Matthew  the  tax-gatherer,  we  must  take  care  not  to  confound 
him  with  the  traitor  and  thief.  This  brings  me  to  the  consid- 
eration of  the  subject  as  treated  by  Albert  Dlirer. 

In  the  series  of  large  woodcuts  from  the  Passion  of  our 
Saviour  (styled  "La  yrande  Passion"),  the  Cenacolo  is  an 
event,  and  not  a  mystery.  John,  as  a  beautiful  youth,  is  lean- 
ing against  our  Saviour  with  downcast  eyes ;  he  does  not  look 
as  if  he  had  thrown  himself  down  half  asleep,  but  as  if  Christ 
had  put  His  arm  around  him,  and  drawn  and  pressed  him 
fondly  towards  Him.  On  the  right  is  Peter :  the  other  apos- 
tles are  not  easily  discriminated,  but  they  have  all  that  sort  of 
grandiose  ugliness  which  is  so  full  of  character,  and  so  particu- 
larly the  characteristic  of  the  artist :  the  apostle  seated  in  front 
in  a  cowering  attitude,  holding  the  purse  which  he  seems  anx- 
ious to  conceal,  and  looking  up  apprehensively,  I  suppose  to 
be  Judas. 

In  the  smaller  sets  of  woodcuts  ("  La  petite  Passion  ")  I 
believe  the  apostle  with  the  purse  in  the  foreground  to  be  St. 
Matthew  ;  while  the  ugly,  lank-haired  personage  behind  Christ, 
who  looks  as  if  about  to  steal  away,  is  probably  intended  for 
Judas :  one  of  the  apostles  has  laid  hold  of  him,  and  seems  to 
say,  "  Thou  art  the  man  !  " 

There  is  a  third  Cenacolo,  by  Albert  Dlirer,  which  plainly 
represents  the  Eucharist.  The  cup  only  is  on  the  table,  and 
Judas  is  omitted. 

In  a  Cenacolo  by  another  old  German,  Judas  is  in  the  act 
of  receiving  the  sop  which  Christ  is  putting  into  his  mouth ; 


262  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

and  at  the  same  time  he  is  hiding  the  purse,  —  a  mistake,  as 
I  have  already  observed. 

These  examples  must  suffice  to  give  some  idea  of  the  manner 
in  which  this  subject  was  generally  treated  by  the  early  Ger- 
man and  Italian  artists.  But,  whether  presented  before  us  as 
a  dramatic  scene  expressing  individual  character,  or  as  an 
historical  event  memorable  in  the  life  of  Christ,  or  as  a  reli- 
gious rite  of  awful  and  mysterious  import  —  all  the  examples  I 
have  mentioned  are  in  some  respects  deficient.  We  have  the 
feeling,  that,  whatever  may  be  the  merit  in  sentiment,  in 
intention,  in  detail,  what  has  been  attempted  has  not  been 
achieved. 

When  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the  greatest  thinker  as  well  as 
the  greatest  painter  of  his  age,  brought  all  the  resources  of  his 
wonderful  mind  to  bear  on  the  subject,  then  sprang  forth  a 
creation  so  consummate,  that  since  that  time  it  has  been  at 
once  the  wonder  and  the  despair  of  those  who  have  followed 
in  the  same  path.  True,  the  work  of  his  hand  is  perishing  — 
will  soon  have  perished  utterly.  I  remember  well,  standing 
before  this  wreck  of  a  glorious  presence,  so  touched  by  its  pale, 
shadowy,  and  yet  divine  significance,  and  by  its  hopelessly 
impending  ruin,  that  the  tears  sprang  involuntarily.  Fortu- 
nately for  us,  multiplied  copies  have  preserved  at  least  the 
intention  of  the  artist  in  his  work.  We  can  judge  of  what  it 
has  been,  and  take  that  for  our  text  and  for  our  theme. 

The  purpose  being  the  decoration  of  a  refectory  in  a  rich 
convent  [Sta.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  Milan],  the  chamber  lofty 
and  spacious,  Leonardo  has  adopted  the  usual  arrangement : 
the  table  runs  across  from  side  to  side,  filling  up  the  whole 
extent  of  the  wall,  and  the  figures,  being  above  the  eye,  and 
to  be  viewed  from  a  distance,  are  colossal ;  they  would  other- 
Avise  have  appeared  smaller  than  the  real  personages  seated  at 
the  tables  below.  The  moment  selected  is  the  utterance  of 
the  words,  "  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you,  that  one  of  you 
shall  betray  me  :  "  or  rather  the  words  have  just  been  uttered, 
and  the  picture  expresses  their  effect  on  the  different  auditors. 
It  is  of  these  auditors,  his  apostles,  that  I  have  to  speak,  and 
not  of  Christ  himself ;  for  the  full  consideration  of  the  subject, 
as  it  regards  Him,  must  be  deferred  ;  the  intellectual  elevation, 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  263 

the  fineness  of  nature,  the  benign  god-like  dignity,  suffused 
with  the  profoundest  sorrow,  in  this  divine  head,  surpassed  all 
I  could  have  conceived  as  possible  in  Art ;  and,  faded  as  it  is, 
the  character  there,  being  stamped  on  it  by  the  soul,  not  the 
hand,  of  the  artist,  will  remain  while  a  line  or  hue  remains 
visible.  It  is  a  divine  shadow,  and,  until  it  fades  into  no- 
thing, and  disappears  utterly,  will  have  the  lineaments  of 
divinity.  Next  to  Christ  is  St.  John ;  he  has  just  been 
addressed  by  Peter,  who  beckons  to  him  that  he  should  ask 
"of  whom  the  Lord  spake."  His  disconsolate  attitude,  as  he 
has  raised  himself  to  reply,  and  leans  his  clasped  hands  on 
the  table,  the  almost  feminine  sweetness  of  his  countenance, 
express  the  character  of  this  gentle  and  amiable  apostle.  Peter, 
leaning  from  behind,  is  all  fire  and  energy ;  Judas,  who  knows 
full  well  of  whom  the  Saviour  spake,  starts  back  amazed,  over- 
setting the  salt ;  his  fingers  clutch  the  bag,  of  which  he  has 
the  charge,  with  that  action  which  Dante  describes  as  charac- 
teristic of  the  avaricious  :  — 

Quest!  risurgeranno  dal  sepolcro 
Col  pugno  chiuso. 

Tiiese  from  the  tomb  with  clenched  grasp  shall  rise. 

His  face  is  seen  in  profile,  and  cast  into  shadow ;  without 
being  vulgar,  or  even  ugly,  it  is  hateful.  St.  Andrew,  with 
his  long  gray  beard,  lifts  up  his  hands,  expressing  the  wonder 
of  a  simple-hearted  old  man.  St.  James  Minor,  resembling 
the  Saviour  in  his  mild  features,  and  the  form  of  his  beard 
and  hair,  lays  his  hand  on  the  shoulder  of  St.  Peter  —  the 
expression  is,  "  Can  it  be  possible  ?  Have  we  heard  aright  ?  " 
Bartholomew,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  table,  has  risen  per- 
turbed from  his  seat ;  he  leans  forward  with  a  look  of  eager 
attention,  the  lips  parted  ;  he  is  impatient  to  hear  more.  (The 
fine  copy  of  Oggione,  in  the  Royal  Academy,  does  not  give 
this  anxious  look  —  he  is  attentive  only.)  On  the  left  of  our 
Saviour  is  St.  James  Major,  who  has  also  a  family  resemblance 
to  Christ ;  his  arms  are  outstretched,  he  shrinks  back,  he 
repels  the  thought  with  horror.  The  vivacity  of  the  action 
and  expression  are  wonderfully  true  and  characteristic.  (Mor- 
ghen,  the  engraver,  erroneously  supposed  this  to  represent  St. 
Thomas,  and  placed  on  the  border  of  his  robe  an  inscription 
fixing  the  identity  ;  which  inscription,  as  Bossi  asserts,  never 


264  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

did  exist  in  the  original  picture.)  St.  Thomas  is  behind  St. 
James,  rather  young,  with  a  short  beard ;  he  holds  up  his 
hand,  threatening  —  "If  there  be  indeed  such  a  wretch,  let 
him  look  to  it."  Philip,  young  and  with  a  beautiful  head, 
lays  his  hand  on  his  heart ;  he  protests  his  love,  his  truth. 
Matthew,  also  beardless,  has  more  elegance,  as  one  who  be- 
longed to  a  more  educated  class  than  the  rest ;  he  turns  to 
Jude  and  points  to  our  Saviour,  as  if  about  to  repeat  His 
words,  "  Do  you  hear  what  He  says  ?  "  Simon  and  Jude  sit 
together  (Leonardo  has  followed  the  tradition  which  makes 
them  old  and  brothers)  ;  Jude  expresses  consternation ;  Simon, 
with  his  hands  stretched  out,  a  painful  anxiety. 

To  understand  the  wonderful  skill  with  which  this  compo- 
sition has  been  arranged,  it  ought  to  be  studied  long  and 
minutely  ;  and,  to  appreciate  its  relative  excellence,  it  ought 
to  be  compared  with  other  productions  of  the  same  period. 
Leonardo  has  contrived  to  break  the  formality  of  the  line  of 
heads  without  any  apparent  artifice,  and  without  disturbing 
the  grand  simplicity  of  the  usual  order ;  arid  he  has  vanquished 
the  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  position  of  Judas,  without 
making  him  too  prominent.  He  has  imparted  to  a  solemn 
scene  sufficient  movement  and  variety  of  action,  without  de- 
tracting from  its  dignity  and  pathos ;  he  has  kept  the  expres- 
sion of  each  head  true  to  the  traditional  character,  without 
exaggeration,  without  effort.  To  have  done  this,  to  have  been 
the  first  to  do  this,  required  the  far-reaching  philosophic  mind, 
not  less  than  the  excelling  hand,  of  this  "  miracle  of  nature," 
as  Mr.  Hallam  styles  Leonardo,  with  reference  to  his  scientific 
as  well  as  his  artistic  powers. 

And  now  to  turn  to  another  miracle  of  nature,  Raphael. 
He  has  given  us  three  compositions  for  the  Last  Supper.  The 
fresco  lately  discovered  in  the  refectory  of  Sanf  Onofrio  [now 
known  as  the  "  Egyptian  Museum  "],  at  Florence,  is  an  early 
work  painted  in  his  twenty-third  year  (A.  D.  1505).  The 
authenticity  of  this  picture  has  been  vehemently  disputed ; l 
for  myself  —  as  far  as  my  opinion  is  worth  anything  —  I  never, 

1  [For  the  opinion  of  those  who  attribute  this  fresco  to  Raphael  see  Gazette 
des  Beaux  Arts,  1872,  vol.  ii.  p.  299.  In  the  judgment  of  Kugler  and  of  Crowe 
and  Cavalcaselle  it  is  the  work  of  Gerino  da  Pistoia.] 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  265 

after  the  first  five  minutes,  had  a  doubt  on  the  subject.  As 
to  its  being  the  work  of  Neri  de'  Bicci,  I  do  not  believe  it 
possible ;  and  as  for  the  written  documents  brought  forward  to 
prove  this,  I  turn  from  them  to  "  the  handwriting  on  the 
wall,"  and  there  I  see,  in  characters  of  light,  RAPHAEL  —  and 
him  only.  It  is,  however,  a  youthful  work,  full  of  sentiment 
and  grace,  but  deficient,  it  appears  to  me,  in  that  depth  and 
discrimination  of  character  displayed  in  his  later  works.  It  is 
evident  that  he  had  studied  Giotto's  fresco  in  the  neighboring 
Santa  Croce.  The  arrangement  is  nearly  the  same. 

Christ  is  in  the  centre ;  His  right  hand  is  raised,  and  He  is 
about  to  speak  ;  the  left  hand  is  laid,  with  extreme  tenderness 
in  the  attitude  and  expression,  on  the  shoulder  of  John,  who  re- 
clines upon  Him.  To  the  right  of  Christ  is  St.  Peter,  the  head 
of  the  usual  character ;  next  to  him  St.  Andrew,  with  the 
flowing  gray  hair  and  long  divided  beard ;  St.  James  Mi- 
nor, the  head  declined  resembling  Christ :  he  hofds  a  cup. 
St.  Philip  is  seen  in  profile  with  a  white  beard  (this  is  con- 
trary to  the  received  tradition,  which  makes  him  young ;  and 
I  doubt  the  correctness  of  this  appellation).  St.  James  Major, 
at  the  extreme  end  of  the  table,  looks  out  of  the  picture ; 
Raphael  has  apparently  represented  himself  in  this  apostle. 
On  the  left  of  Christ,  after  St.  John,  is  St.  Bartholomew  ;  he 
holds  a  knife,  and  has  the  black  beard  and  dark  complexion 
usually  given  to  him.  Then  Matthew,  something  like  Peter, 
but  milder  and  more  refined.  Thomas,  young  and  handsome, 
pours  wine  into  a  cup  ;  last,  on  the  right,  are  Simon  and  Jude  ; 
Raphael  has  followed  the  tradition  which  supposes  them  young, 
and  the  kinsmen  of  our  Saviour.  Judas  sits  on  a  stool  on  the 
near  side  of  the  table,  opposite  to  Christ,  and  while  he  dips 
his  hand  into  the  dish  he  looks  round  to  the  spectators  ;  he 
has  the  Jewish  features,  red  hair  and  beard,  and  a  bad  expres- 
sion. All  have  glories ;  but  the  glory  round  the  head  of 
Judas  is  much  smaller  than  the  others.  This  is  also  ob- 
servable in  the  Last  Supper  by  Niccolo  Petri  in  the  San  Fran- 
cesco at  Pisa. 

In  the  second  composition,  one  of  the  series  of  the  Life  of 
Christ,  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  Raphael  has  placed  the 
apostles  round  a  table,  foxir  on  each  of  the  three  sides  ;  our 
Saviour  presiding  in  the  centre.  John  and  Peter,  who  are,  as 
usual,  nearest  to  Christ,  look  to  Him  with  an  animated  appeal- 


2G6  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

ing  expression.  Judas  is  in  front,  looking  away  from  the 
rest,  and  as  if  about  to  rise.  The  other  heads  are  not  well 
discriminated,  nor  is  the  moment  well  expressed;  there  is, 
indeed,  something  confused  and  inharmonious,  unlike  Raphael, 
in  the  whole  composition.  I  pass  it  over,  therefore,  without 
further  remark,  to  come  to  the  third  example  —  a  masterpiece 
of  his  later  years,  worthy  as  a  composition  of  being  compared 
with  Leonardo's ;  but,  never  having  been  painted,  we  can  only 
pronounce  it  perfect  as  far  as  it  goes.  The  original  drawing 
enriches  the  collection  of  the  Queen  of  England  :  the  admir- 
able engraving  of  Marc  Antonio,  said  to  have  been  touched 
by  Raphael,  is  before  me  while  I  write.  From  the  disposition 
of  the  unshod  feet  as  seen  under  the  table,  it  is  styled  by  col- 
lectors "  il  pezzo  del  piedi ;  "  from  the  arrangement  of  the 
table  and  figures  it  was  probably  designed  for  a  refectory. 

In  the  centre  is  Christ,  with  both  hands  resting  on  the 
table  ;  in'  the  head,  a  melancholy  resignation.  Peter  is  on  the 
right,  his  hand  on  his  breast.  John,  on  the  left,  places  both 
hands  on  his  breast,  with  a  most  animated  expression,  —  "  You 
cannot  believe  it  is  I  ?  "  Andrew  has  laid  his  hand  on  the 
shoulder  of  Peter,  and  leans  forward  with  a  sad  interrogative 
expression.  The  head  of  Judas  has  features  akin  to  those  of 
the  antique  satyr,  with  the  look  askance  of  a  detected  villain  ; 
he  has  heard  the  words,  but  he  dares  not  meet  the  eye,  of  his 
Divine  Master  :  he  has  no  purse.  James  Minor,  next  to  John, 
with  his  hands  extended,  seems  to  speak  sadly  to  Philip  : 
"  And  they  began  to  inquire  among  themselves,  which  of  them 
should  do  this  thing  ?  "  The  whole  composition  is  less  dra- 
matic, has  less  variety  of  action  and  attitude,  than  that  of 
Leonardo,  but  is  full  of  deep  melancholy  feeling. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  Convent  of  the 
Salvi  near  Florence,  takes,  I  believe,  the  third  rank  after  those 
of  Leonardo  and  Raphael.  He  has  chosen  the  selfsame  mo- 
ment, "  One  of  you  shall  betray  me."  The  figures  are,  as 
usual,  ranged  on  one  side  of  a  long  table.  Christ,  in  the 
centre,  holds  a  piece  of  bread  in  His  hand ;  on  His  left  is  St. 
John,  and  on  His  right  St.  James  Major,  both  seen  in  profile. 
The  face  of  St.  John  expresses  interrogation  ;  that  of  St.  James, 
interrogation  and  a  start  of  amazement.  Next  to  St.  James 
are  Peter,  Thomas,  Andrew  ;  then  Philip,  who  has  a  small 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  267 

cross  upon  his  breast.  After  St.  John  come  James  Minor, 
Simon.  Jude,  Judas  Iscariot,  and  Bartholomew.  Judas,  with 
his  hands  folded  together,  leans  forward,  and  looks  down,  with 
a  round  mean  face,  in  which  there  is  no  power  of  any  kind, 
not  even  of  malignity.  In  passing  almost  immediately  from 
the  Cenacolo  in  the  St.  Onofrio  to  that  in  the  Salvi.  we  feel 
strongly  all  the  difference  between  the  mental  and  moral  supe- 
riority of  Raphael  at  the  age  of  twenty  and  the  artistic  great- 
ness of  Andrea  in  the  maturity  of  his  age  and  talent.  This 
fresco  deserves  its  high  celebrity.  It  is  impossible  to  look  on 
it  without  admiration,  considered  as  a  work  of  Art.  The 
variety  of  the  attitudes,  the  disposition  of  the  limbs  beneath 
the  table,  the  ample,  tasteful  draperies,  deserve  the  highest 
praise  ;  but  the  heads  are  deficient  in  character  and  elevation, 
and  the  whole  composition  wants  that  solemnity  of  feeling 
proper  to  the  subject. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Titian,  painted  for  Philip  II.  for  the  altar 
of  his  chapel  in  the  Escurial,  is  also  a  notable  example  of  the 
want  of  proper  reverential  feeling :  two  servants  are  in  at- 
tendance ;  Judas  is  in  front,  averting  his  head,  which  is  in  deep 
shadow ;  a  dog  is  under  the  table,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
descending  from  above. 

Xiccolo  Poussin  has  three  times  painted  the  Cenacolo.1  In 
the  two  series  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,  he  has,  of  course,  rep- 
resented the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  as  proper  to  his  sub- 
ject ;  in  both  instances,  in  that  pure  and  classical  taste  proper 
to  himself.  In  the  best  and  largest  composition,  the  apostles 
are  reclining  on  couches  round  the  table.  Christ  holds  a  plate 
full  of  bread,  and  appears  as  saying,  "Take,  eat."  Four  are 
putting  the  morsel  into  their  mouths.  Judas  is  seen  behind, 
with  an  abject  look,  stealing  out  of  the  room. 

The  faults  which  I  have  observed  in  pictures  of  this  subject 
are  chiefly  met  with  in  the  Venetian,  Flemish,  and  later  Bo- 
lognese  schools.  When  the  motif  selected  is  the  institution 
of  the  Eucharist,  it  is  a  fault  to  sacrifice  the  solemnity  and 
religious  import  of  the  scene  in  order  to  render  it  more  dra- 
matic :  it  ought  not  to  be  dramatic ;  but  the  pervading  senti- 

1  [Poussin's  Christ  instituting  the  Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  is  in  the 
Louvre.] 


268  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

meat  should  be  one,  a  deep  and  awful  reverence.  When  Christ 
is  distributing  the  bread  and  wine,  the  apostles  should  not  be 
conversing  with  each  other;  nor  should  the  figures  exceed 
twelve  in  number,  for  it  appears  to  me  that  the  introduction 
of  Judas  disturbs  the  sacred  harmony  and  tranquillity  of  the 
scene.  When  the  motif  is  the  celebration  of  the  Passover, 
or  the  detection  of  Judas,  a  more  dramatic  and  varied  arrange- 
ment is  necessary  ;  but  here,  to  make  the  apostles  intent  on 
eating  and  drinking,  as  in  some  old  German  pictures,  is  a  fault. 
Even  Albano  has  represented  one  of  the  apostles  as  peeping 
into  an  empty  wine-pitcher  with  a  disappointed  look. 

It  appears  to  me,  also,  a  gross  fault  to  introduce  dogs  and 
cats,  and  other  animals ;  although  I  have  heard  it  observed 
that  a  dog  gnawing  a  bone  is  introduced  with  propriety,  to 
show  that  the  supper  is  over,  the  Paschal  Lamb  eaten,  before 
the  moment  represented. 

Vulgar  heads,  taken  from  vulgar  models,  or  selected  without 
any  regard  either  to  the  ancient  types,  or  the  traditional  char- 
acter of  the  different  apostles,  are  defects  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, especially  in  the  older  German  schools  ;  and  in  Titian, 
Paul  Veronese,  and  Rubens,  even  where  the  heads  are  other- 
wise fine  and  expressive,  the  scriptural  truth  of  character  is  in 
general  sacrificed. 

It  is  a  fault,  as  I  have  already  observed,  to  represent  Judas 
anxiously  concealing  the  purse. 

| 

Holbein,  in  his  famous  Last  Supper  at  Basle,  and  in  the 

small  one  in  the  Louvre,  has  adopted  the  usual  arrangement ; 
the  heads  all  want  elevation ;  but  here  the  attention  fixes  at 
once  upon  Judas  Iscariot  —  the  very  ideal  of  scoundrelism  — 
I  can  use  no  other  word  to  express  the  unmitigated  ugliness, 
vulgarity,  and  brutality  of  the  face.  Lavater  has  referred  to 
it  as  an  example  of  the  physiognomy  proper  to  cruelty  and 
avarice  ;  but  the  dissimulation  is  wanting.  This  base,  eager, 
hungry-looking  villain  stands  betrayed  by  his  own  looks ;  he 
is  too  prominent  ;  he  is,  in  fact,  the  principal  figure,  a  fault 
in  taste,  feeling,  and  propriety. 

The  introduction  of  a  great  number  of  figures,  as  spectators 
or  attendants,  is  a  fault ;  excusable,  perhaps,  where  the  sub- 
ject is  decorative  and  intended  for  the  wall  of  a  refectory,  but 


THE   LAST    SUITER  '  269 

not  otherwise.  Iri  the  composition  of  Paul  Veronese,1  there 
are  twenty-three  figures ;  in  that  of  Zucchero,  forty -live ;  in 
that  of  Baroccio,  twenty-one.  These  supernumerary  persons 
detract  from  the  dignity  and  solemnity  of  the  scene. 

Tintoretto  has  introduced  several  spectators,  and  among 
them  an  old  woman  spinning  in  a  corner,  who,  while  she  turns 
her  spindle,  looks  on  with  an  observant  eye.  This  alludes  to 
an  early  tradition,  that  the  Last  Supper  was  eaten  in  the  house 
of  Mary,  the  mother  of  Mark  the  evangelist.  But  it  is  no- 
where said  that  she  was  present,  and  therefore  it  is  an  impro- 
priety to  introduce  her.  Magnificent  architecture,  as  in  the 
picture  by  B.  Peruzzi  (who,  by  the  way,  was  an  architect), 
seems  objectionable  :  but  equally  unsuitable  is  the  poor  dis- 
mantled garret  in  this  picture  of  Tintoretto  ;  for  the  chamber 
in  which  the  scene  took  place  was  "  the  guest  chamber,"  a 
large  upper  room,  ready  prepared  ;  and  as  it  was  afterwards 
the  scene  of  the  Pentecost,  it  must  have  held  more  than  a 
hundred  persons. 

It  is  a  fault,  as  I  have  already  observed,  to  represent  John 
as  asleep  on  the  breast  or  the  shoulder  of  our  Saviour. 

Though  countenanced  by  the  highest  authorities  in  Art,  I 
believe  it  must  be  considered  as  a  fault,  or  at  least  a  mistake, 
to  represent  our  Saviour  and  His  apostles  as  seated,  instead  of 
reclining  round  the  table.  It  is  a  fault,  not  merely  because 
the  use  of  the  triclinium  or  couch  at  all  social  meals  was  gen- 
eral in  the  antique  times,  —  for  the  custom  of  sitting  upright 
was  not  so  entirely  extinct  among  the  Jews  but  that  it  might 
on  any  other  occasion  have  been  admissible,  —  but,  from 
peculiar  circumstances,  it  became  in  this  instance  an  impro- 
priety. We  know  that  when  the  Passover  was  first  instituted 
the  Jews  were  enjoined  to  eat  it  standing,  as  men  in  haste, 
with  girded  loins  and  sandalled  feet ;  but  afterwards  it  was 
made  imperative  that  they  should  eat  it  in  an  attitude  of  re- 
pose, lying  upon  couches,  and  as  men  at  ease  ;  and  the  reason 
for  this  was,  that  all  the  circumstances  of  the  meal,  and  par- 
ticularly the  attitude  in  Avhich  it  was  eaten,  should  indicate 

1  [There  is  a  Last  Supper  by  Veronese  in  the  refectory  of  SS.  Giovanni  e 
I'aolo,  Venice.] 


270  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

the  condition  of  security  and  freedom  which  the  Israelites  en- 
joyed after  their  deliverance  from  the  Egyptian  bondage.  In 
the  then  imperfect  state  of  Biblical  criticism,  this  fact  seems  to 
have  been  unknown  to  the  earlier  artists,  or  disregarded  by 
those  who  employed  and  directed  them.  Among  modern  ar- 
tists, Poussin  and  Le  Sueur  have  scrupulously  attended  to  it, 
even  when  the  moment  chosen  is  the  mystical  distribution  of 
the  bread  and  wine  which  succeeded  the  Paschal  Supper. 
Commentators  have  remarked,  that  if  Christ  and  his  disciples 
reclined  at  table,  then,  supposing  Christ  to  have  the  central 
place  of  honor,  the  head  of  John  would  have  been  near  to 
the  bosom  of  Christ :  but  under  these  circumstances,  if  Judas 
were  sufficiently  near  to  receive  the  sop  from  the  hand  of 
Christ,  then  he  must  have  reclined  next  to  Him  on  the  other 
side,  and  have  taken  precedence  of  Peter.  This  supposed  a 
propinquity  which  the  early  Christian  artists  deemed  offensive 
and  inadmissible. 

In  the  composition  by  Stradano  the  arrangement  of  the 
table  and  figures  is  particularly  well  managed  :  all  recline  on 
couches ;  in  the  centre  of  the  table  is  a  dish,  to  which  Christ 
extends  His  hand,  and  Judas,  who  is  here  rather  handsome 
than  otherwise,  at  the  same  time  stretches  forth  his ;  the  mo- 
ment is  evidently,  "He  that  dippeth  with  me  in  the  dish,  the 
same  shall  betray  me."  Two  circumstances  spoil  this  picture, 
and  bring  it  down  to  the  level  of  the  vulgar  and  the  common- 
place. In  the  background  is  seen  a  kitchen  and  the  cooking 
of  the  supper.  Under. Judas  crouches  a  hideous  demon,  with 
horns,  hoof,  and  tail,  visible  only  to  the  spectator. 

When  the  Cenacolo  represents  the  Eucharist,  it  is,  perhaps, 
allowable  to  introduce  angels,  because  it  was,  and  I  believe  is, 
an  established  belief,  that,  visible  or  invisible,  they  are  always 
present  at  the  Sacrament.  The  Holy.  Ghost  descending  from 
above  is  unsanctioned  by  Scripture,  but  may  serve  to  mark 
the  mystical  and  peculiar  solemnity  of  the  moment  chosen 
for  representation.  It  may  signify,  "  He  that  receiveth  me, 
receiveth  Him  that  sent  me."  But  where  angels  attend,  or 
where  the  Spiritual  Comforter  comes  floating  down  from  above, 
then  the  presence  of  Judas,  or  of  any  superfluous  figures  as 
spectators  or  servitors,  or  of  dogs  or  other  animals,  becomes  a 
manifest  impropriety. 


THE   LAST   SUPPER  271 

The  introduction  of  the  Devil  in  person  as  tempting  Judas 
is  rendered  pardonable  by  the  naivete  of  the  early  painters  : 
in  the  later  schools  of  Art  it  is  offensive  and  ridiculous. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Baroccio,  painted  by  order  of  Clement  VIII. 
(1594),  for  his  family  chapel  in  the  Santa  Maria-sopra-Minerva, 
is  remarkable  for  an  anecdote  relating  to  it.  Baroccio,  who 
was  not  eminent  for  a  correct  taste,  had  in  his  first  sketch  re- 
verted to  the  ancient  fashion  of  placing  Satan  close  behind 
Judas,  whispering  in  his  ear,  and  tempting  him  to  betray  his 
Master.  The  Pope  expressed  his  dissatisfaction,  —  "  che  non 
gli piaceva  ildemoniosidimesticassetanto  con  Gesu  Cristo"1 
—  and  ordered  him  to  remove  the  offensive  figure.  This  is  not 
the  last  example  of  the  ancient  manner  of  treatment.  In  the 
Cenacolo  of  Franceschini,  painted  nearly  a  century  later,  two 
angels  are  attending  on  the  sacred  repast,  while  Judas  is  in  the 
act  of  leaving  the  room,  conducted  by  Satan  in  person. 

It  is  surely  a  fault,  in  a  scene  of  such  solemn  and  sacred 
import,  to  make  the  head  of  Judas  a  vehicle  for  public  or 
private  satire,  by  giving  him  the  features  of  some  obnoxious 
personage  of  the  time.  This,  according  to  tradition,  has  been 
done  in  some  instances.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  ex- 
ample that  could  be  cited  is  the  story  of  Andrea  del  Castagno, 
who,  after  having  betrayed  and  assassinated  his  friend  Do- 
menico  Veneziano,  painted  himself  in  the  character  of  Judas  : 
a  curious  instance  of  remorse  of  conscience.2 

Volumes  might  be  written  on  the  subject  of  the  Last  Sup- 
per. It  extends  before  me,  as  I  think  and  write,  into  endless 
suggestive  associations,  which,  for  the  present,  I  dare  not  fol- 
low out :  but  I  shall  have  occasion  to  return  to  it  hereafter. 
(  Vide  Legends  of  the  Madonna.) 

1  [It  did  not  please  him  for  the  devil  to  be  so  familiar  with  Jesus  Christ.] 

2  [The  story  of  Castagno's  betrayal  of  his  friend,  related  by  Vasari,  is  now 
positively  known  to  be  false.    The  registers  of  the  death  of  the  two  painters 
show  that  the  supposed  victim  outlived  the  supposed  murderer  four  years 
Vide  Layard's  Revision  of  Kugler's  Handbook,  p.  135.] 


272  THE   TWELVE   APOSTLES 

ST.  BARNABAS 
Ilal.  San  Barnaba.     Fr.  Saint  Barnabe.     (June  11.) 

St.  Barnabas  is  usually  entitled  the  Apostle  Barnabas,  be- 
cause  he  was  associated  with  the  Apostles  in  their  high  calling ; 
"  and,"  according  to  Lardner,  "  though  without  that  large 
measure  of  inspiration  and  high  authority  which  was  peculiar 
to  the  TWELVE  APOSTLES,  properly  so  called,  yet  he  is  to  be 
considered  as  Apostolical,  and  next  to  them  in  sanctity."  For 
this  reason  I  place  him  here. 

St.  Barnabas  was  a  Levite,  born  in  the  island  of  Cyprus  and 
the  cousin-german  of  Mark  the  evangelist.  The  notices  of  his 
life  and  character  scattered  through  the  Acts  invest  him  with 
great  personal  interest.  He  it  was  who,  after  the  conversion 
of  Paul,  was  the  first  to  believe  in  his  sincerity,  and  took 
courage  to  present  him  to  the  other  apostles,  "  who  were  afraid 
of  him,  and  would  not  believe  that  he  was  a  disciple."  (Acts 
xv.  39.)  Barnabas  afterwards  became  the  fellow-laborer  of 
Paul,  and  attended  him  to  Antioch.  We  are  told  that  "  he 
was  a  good  man,  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  faith :  "  and 
to  this  the  legendary  traditions  add,  that  he  was  a  man  of 
a  most  comely  countenance,  of  a  noble  presence,  grave  and 
commanding  in  his  step  and  deportment;  and  thence,  when 
he  and  Paul  were  at  Lystra  together,  "  they  called  Barnabas 
Jupiter,  arid  Paul  Mercurius."  Subsequently,  however,  Paul 
and  Barnabas  fell  into  a  dispute  concerning  Mark,  and  sepa- 
rated. The  tradition  relates  that  Barnabas  and  Mark  remained 
for  some  time  together,  being  united  by  the  ties  of  friendship, 
as  well  as  by  those  of  kindred.  Barnabas  preached  the  Gos- 
pel in  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy  ;  and  there  is  an  old 
legendary  tradition  that  he  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan.  The 
legend  also  relates  that  everywhere  he  carried  with  him  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  written  by  the  hand  of  the  evangelist, 
preaching  what  was  written  therein ;  and  when  any  were  sick, 
or  possessed,  he  laid  the  sacred  writing  upon  their  bosom,  and 
they  were  healed  (a  beautiful  allegory  this  !)  ;  and  it  happened 
that,  as  he  preached  in  a  synagogue  of  Judea  against  the  Jews, 
they  were  seized  with  fury  and  took  him,  and  put  him  to  a 
cruel  death.  But  Mark  and  the  other  Christians  buried  him 
with  many  tears. 


ST.   BAKNABAS  273 

The  body  of  St.  Barnabas  remained  in  its  place  of  sepulture 
till  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  when,  according  to  Nice- 
phorus,  it  was  revealed  in  a  dream  to  Antemius  that  the 
apostle  rested  in  a  certain  spot,  and  would  be  found  there, 
with  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  lying  on  his  bosom.  And  so 
it  happened :  the  remains  were  found  ;  the  Gospel  was  carried 
to  the  emperor  at  Constantinople ;  and  a  church  was  built,- 
dedicated  to  St.  Barnabas. 

It  is,  I  presume,  in  consequence  of  his  being  the  kinsman 
of  St.  Mark,  that  Barnabas  is  more  popular  at  Venice  than 
elsewhere,  and  that  devotional  figures  of  him  are  rarely  found 
except  in  Venetian  pictures.  He  is  represented  as  a  man  of 
majestic  presence,  holding  in  his  hand  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  as  in  a  fine  picture  by  Bonifazio :  in  his  church  at 
Venice  he  is  represented  over  the  high  altar,  throned  as 
bishop,  while  St.  Peter,  stands  below. 

He  often  occurs  in  subjects  taken  from  the  Acts  and  the 
life  of  St.  Paul.  In  the  scene  in  which  he  presents  Paul  to 
the  other  apostles,  he  is  the  principal  personage ;  but  in  the 
scene  at  Paphos,  where  Elymas  is  struck  blind,  and  at  Lystra, 
he  is  always  secondary  to  his  great  companion. 


V.    THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH 

I.  THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS 

THE  Evangelists  and  the  Apostles  represented  in  Art  the 
Spiritual  Church,  and  took  their  place  among  the  heavenly 
influences.  The  great  Fathers  or  Doctors  were  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  Church  Militant  on  earth :  as  teachers  and  pas- 
tors, as  logicians  and  advocates,  they  wrote,  argued,  contended, 
suffered,  and  at  length,  after  a  long  and  fierce  struggle  against 
opposing  doctrines,  they  fixed  the  articles  of  faith  thereafter 
received  in  Christendom.  For  ages,  and  down  to  the  present 
time,  the  prevailing  creed  has  been  that  which  was  founded 
on  the  interpretations  of  these  venerable  personages.  They 
have  become,  in  consequence,  frequent  and  important  subjects 
of  Art,  particularly  from  the  tenth  century  —  the  period 
when,  in  their  personal  character,  they  began  to  be  regarded 
not  merely  as  gifted  and  venerable,  but  as  divinely  inspired ; 
their  writings  appealed  to  as  infallible,  their  arguments  ac- 
cepted as  demonstration.  We  distinguish  them  as  the  Latin 
and  the  Greek  Fathers.  In  Western  Art,  we  find  the  Latin 
Fathers  perpetually  grouped  together,  or,  in  a  series :  the 
Greek  Fathers  seldom  occur  except  in  their  individual  char- 
acter, as  saints  rather  than  as  teachers. 

The  four  Latin  Doctors  are  St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  St. 
Augustine,  and  St.  Gregory.  When  represented  together, 
they  are  generally  distinguished  from  each  other,  and  from 
the  sacred  personages  who  may  be  grouped  in  the  same  pic- 
ture, by  their  conventional  attributes.  Thus  St.  Jerome  is 
sometimes  habited  in  the  red  hat  and  crimson  robes  of  a  car- 
dinal, with  a  church  in  his  hand  ;  or  he  is  a  half-naked,  bald- 
headed,  long-bearded,  emaciated  old  man,  with  eager  wasted 
features,  holding  a  book  and  pen,  and  attended  by  a  lion.  St. 
Ambrose  wears  the  episcopal  robes  as  Bishop  of  Milan,  with 
mitre  and  crosier,  and  holds  his  book ;  sometimes,  also,  he 


THE   FOUR   LATIX   FATHERS  275 

carries  a  knotted  scourge,  and  a  bee-hive  is  near  him.  St. 
Augustine  is  also  habited  as  a  bishop,  and  carries  a  book ;  he 
has  often  books  at  his  feet,  and  sometimes  a  flaming  heart 
transpierced  by  an  arrow.  The  origin  and  signification  of 
these  symbols  I  shall  explain  presently. 

In  the  most  ancient  churches  the  Four  Doctors  are  placed 
after  the  Evangelists.  In  the  later  churches  they  are  seen 
combined  or  grouped  with  the  evangelists,  occasionally  also 
with  the  sibyls ;  but  this  seems  a  mistake.  The  appropriate 
place  of  the  sibyls  is  neither  with  the  evangelists  nor  the 
fathers,  but  among  the  prophets,  -where  Michael  Angelo  has 
placed  them  [in  the  frescoes  of  the  Sistine  Chapel]. 

Where  the  principal  subject  is  the  glory  of  Christ,  or  the 
coronation  or  assumption  of  the  Virgin,  the  Four  Fathers 
attend  with  their  books  as  witnesses  and  interpreters. 

1.  A  conspicuous  instance  of  this  treatment  is  the  dome  of 
San   Giovanni   at  Parma  [Correggio].     In  the  centre  is  the 
ascension  of  Christ,  around  are  the  Twelve  Apostles  gazing 
upwards ;  below  them,  in  the  spandrils  of  the  arches,  as  if 
bearing  record,  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  each  with  a  Doctor 
of  the  Church  seated  by  him  as  interpreter :   St.  Matthew  is 
attended  by  St.  Jerome ;   St.  Mark,  by  St.  Gregory  ;   St.  Luke, 
by  St.  Augustine ;  and  St.  John,  by  St.  Ambrose. 

2.  A  picture  in  the  Louvre  by  Pier-Francesco  Sacchi  (A. 
D.  1640)   represents  the   Four  Doctors,   attended,   or  rather 
inspired,   by   the    mystic   symbols  of   the    Four  Evangelists. 
They   are    seated  at  a  table,   under  a  Canopy   sustained    by 
slender   pillars,   and    appear  in  deep   consultation :    near   St. 
Augustine  is  the  eagle ;  St.  Gregory  has  the  ox ;  St.  Jerome, 
the  angel ;  and  St.  Ambrose,  the  lion. 

3.  In  a  well-known  woodcut  after  Titian,  "  The  Triumph 
of  Christ,"  1  the  Redeemer  is  seated  in  a  car  drawn  by  the 
Four  Evangelists ;  while  the  Four  Latin  Doctors,  one  at  each 
wheel,  put  forth  all  their  strength  to  urge  it  on.      The  patri- 
archs and  prophets  precede,  the  martyrs  and  confessors  of  the 
faith  follow,  in  grand  procession. 

1  [According  toRidolfi  this  print  reproduces  a  fresco  with  which  Titian 
decorated  the  walls  of  a  house  at  Padua.  Vide  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle. 
Titian,  vol.  i.  p.  121.] 


276  THE   DOCTORS   OF  THE   CHURCH 

4.  In  a  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  very  singularly  treated, 
we  have  Christ  and  the  Virgin  &n  a  high  platform  or  throne, 
sustained  by  columns ;  in  the  space  underneath,  between  these 
columns,  is  a  group  of  unwinged  angels,  holding  the  instru- 
ments of  the  Passion.      (Or,  as  I  have  sometimes  thought,  this 
beautiful  group  may  be  the  souls  of  the  Innocents,  their  proper 
place  being  under  the  throne  of  Christ.)     On  each  side  a  vast 
company  of  prophets,  apostles,  saints,  and  martyrs,  ranged  tier 
above  tier.     Immediately  in  front,  and  on  the  steps  of  the 
throne,  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  seated  each  with  his  symbol 
and  book  :  behind  them  the  Four  Fathers,  also  seated.     This 
picture,  which  as  a  painting  is  singularly  beautiful,  the  execu- 
tion finished,  and  the  heads  most  characteristic  and  expressive, 
may  be  said  to  comprise  a  complete  system  of  the  theology  of 
the  middle  ages.      (Academy,  Venice.     Giovanni  ed  Antonio 
da  Murano.     1440.) 

5.  We  have  the  same  idea  carried  out  in  the  lower  part  of 
Raphael's  "  Disputa  "  in  the  Vatican.     The  Four  Doctors  are 
in  the  centre  of  what  may  be  called  the  sublunary  part  of  the 
picture :  they  are  the  only  seated  figures  in  the  vast  assembly 
of  holy,  wise,  and  learned  men  around ;  St.  Gregory  and  St. 
Jerome  on  the  right  of  the  altar,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augus- 
tine on  the  left.     As  the  two  latter  wear  the  same  parapher- 
nalia, they  are   distinguished   by   having  books   scattered  at 
their  feet,  on  which  are  inscribed  the  titles  of  their  respective 
works. 

The  Madonna  and  Child  enthroned,  with  the  Doctors  of 
the  Church  standing  on  each  side,  is  a  subject  which  has  been 
often,  and  sometimes  beautifully,  treated ;  and  here  the  con- 
trast between  all  we  can  conceive  of  virginal  and  infantine 
loveliness  and  innocence  enshrined  in  heavenly  peace  and 
glory  —  and  these  solemn,  bearded,  grand-looking  old  Fathers, 
attending  in  humble  reverence,  as  types  of  earthty  wisdom  — 
ought  to  produce  a  magnificent  effect,  when  conceived  in  the 
right  spirit.  I  can  remember,  however,  but  few  instances  in 
which  the  treatment  is  complete  and  satisfactory. 

1.  One  of  these  is  a  picture  by  A.  Vivarini :  (A.  D.  1446), 

1  [The  inscription  on  this  painting  is  "  1446  Johannes  Alaitiaunus  Antonius 
<le  Muriano  p.,"  scarcely  leaving  room  to  doubt  that  it  is  the  work  of  Giovanni 
and  Antonio  da  Murano.  Vide  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting 
in  North  Italy,  vol.  i.  p.  28.] 


THE   FOUR   LATIX  FATHERS  277 

now  in  the  Academy  at  Venice.  [Catalogued  to  Giovanni 
and  Antonio  da  Murano.]  Here,  the  Virgin  sits  upon  a 
throne  under  a  rich  canopy  sustained  by  four  little  angels. 
She  looks  out  of  the  picture  with  a  most  dignified,  tranquil, 
goddess-like  expression ;  she  wears,  as  usual,  the  crimson 
tunic  and  blue  mantle,  the  latter  being  of  most  brilliant 
azure  ;  on  her  brow  a  magnificent  jewelled  crown  ;  the  Divine 
Child  stands  on  her  knee,  and  raises  his  little  hand  to  bless 
the  worshipper.  To  the  right  of  the  Virgin,  and  on  the 
platform  of  her  throne,  stands  St.  Jerome,  robed  as  cardinal, 
and  bearing  his  church,  with  St.  Gregory  habited  as  pope. 
To  the  left  stands  St.  Ambrose,  holding  his  crosier  and  knotted 
scourge,  and  St.  Augustine  with  his  book.  This  is  a  wonder- 
ful picture,  and,  as  a  specimen  of  the  early  Venetian  school, 
unequalled.  The  accuracy  of  imitation,  the  dazzling  color, 
the  splendid  dresses  and  accessories,  the  grave  beauty  of  the 
Madonna,  the  divine  benignity  of  the  Infant  Redeemer,  and 
£he  sternly  thoughtful  heads  of  the  old  Doctors,  are  not  only 
positively  fine,  but  have  a  relative  interest  and  value  as  being 
stamped  with  that  very  peculiar  character  which  belonged  to 
the  Vivarini  and  their  immediate  followers.  It  was  painted 
for  the  Scuola  della  Carita.1 

2.  A  different  and  a  singular  treatment  of  the  Four  Fathers 
occurs  in  another  Venetian  picture,  in  the  Academy,  Venice, 
by  Gio.  da  Udine.  Christ  is  represented  seated  on  a  throne, 
and  disputing  with  the  Jewish  doctors,  who  are  eagerly  argu- 
ing or  searching  their  books.  In  front  of  the  composition 
stand  St.  Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  and  St.-Gregory  ; 
who,  with  looks  fixed  on  the  youthful  Saviour,  appear  to 
be  reverentially  listening  to  and  recording  His  words.  This 
wholly  poetical  and  ideal  treatment  of  a  familiar  passage  in 
the  life  of  Christ  I  have  never  seen  but  in  this  one  instance. 

1  As  I  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  to  pictures  painted  for  the  Scuole  of 
Venice,  it  may  be  as  well  to  observe  that  the  word  scuola,  which  we  translate 
school,  is  not  a  place  of  education,  but  a  confraternity  for  charitable  purposes, 
—  visiting  the  sick,  providing  hospitals,  adopting  orphans,  redeeming  pris- 
oners and  captives,  etc.  In  the  days  of  the  republic  these  schools  were  richly 
supported  and  endowed,  and  the  halls,  churches,  and  chapels  attached  to  them 
were  often  galleries  of  Art:  such  were  the  schools  of  St.  Mark,  St.  Ursula,  St. 
Koch,  the  Carita,  and  others.  Unhappily,  they  exist  no  longer;  the  French 
seized  on  their  funds,  and  Austria  does  not  like  confraternities  of  any  kind. 
The  Scuola  della  Caritii  is  now  the  Academv  of  Arts. 


278  THE   DOCTORS   OF  THE   CHURCH 

3.  A  third  example  is  a  picture  by  Moretto,  of  extraordinary 
beauty,  in  the  Frankfort  Museum.  The  Virgin  sits  on  a  lofty 
throne,  to  which  there  is  an  ascent  of  several  steps ;  the  Child 
stands  on  her  right :  she  presses  him  to  her  with  maternal 
tenderness,  and  his  arms  are  round  her  neck.  At  the  foot  of 
the  throne  stand  St.  Ambrose,  with  his  scourge,  and  St. 
Augustine ;  St.  Gregory,  wearing  the  papal  tiara,  and  without 
a  beard,  is  seated  on  a  step  of  the  throne,  holding  an  open 
book  ;  and  St.  Jerome,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  points  to  a 
passage  in  it ;  he  wears  the  cardinal's  dress  complete.  This 
picture  is  worthy  of  Titian  in  the  richness  of  the  effect,  with 
a  more  sober  grandeur  in  the  color.  The  Virgin  is  too  much 
like  a  portrait ;  this  is  the  only  fault.1 

In  the  Chapel  of  Niccolb  V.,  in  the  Vatican,  Angelico  has 
painted  eight  Doctors  of  the  Church,  single  majestic  figures, 
standing  under  Gothic  canopies.  According  to  the  names  now 
to  be  seen  inscribed  on  the  pedestals  beneath,  these  figures 
represent  St.  Jerome,2  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Gregory, 
St.  Athanasius,  St.  Leo,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  St.  Athanasius  represent 
the  Greek  doctors.  St.  Leo,  who  saved  Rome  from  Attila,  is 
with  peculiar  propriety  placed  in  the  Vatican ;  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  the  angelic  doctor,  naturally  finds  a  place  in  a  chapel 
painted  by  a  Dominican  for  a  pope  who  particularly  favored 
the  Dominicans,  —  Nicholas  V. 

The  Four  Fathers  communing  on  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity, 
or  the  Immaculate  Conception,  were  favorite  subjects  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  church  pictures, 
instead  of  being  religious  and  devotional,  became  more  and 
more  theological.  There  is  an  admirable  picture  of  this  sub- 
ject by  Dosso  Dossi  (Dresden  Gal.).  Above  is  seen  the  Mes- 

1  We  missed  the  opportunity,  now  never  more  to  be  recalled,  of  obtaining 
this  admirable  picture  when  it  was  sold  out  of  the  Fesch  collection. 

2  I  believe  the  figure  called  St.  Bonaventura  to  represent  St.  Jerome,  be- 
cause, in  accordance  with  the  usual  scheme  of  ecclesiastical  decoration,  the 
greatest  of  the  Four  Latin  Fathers  would  take  the  first  place,  and  the  car- 
dinal's hat  and  a  long  flowing  beard  are  his  proper  attribute  ;  whereas,  there 
is  no  example  of  a  St.  .Bonaventura  with  a  beard,  or  wearing  the  monastic 
habit,  without  the  Franciscan  cord.     The  Arundel  Society  have  engraved 
this  fine  figure  under  the  name  of  St.  Bonaventura. 


THE  VISION  OF  THE  FOUR  FATHERS  (Dosso  Dossi) 


THE   FOUR   LATIN   FATHERS  279 

siah,  as  Creator,  in  a  glory ;  he  lays  His  hand  on  the  head  of 
the  Virgin,  who  kneels  in  deep  humility  before  Him ;  St. 
Gregory  sits  in  profound  thought,  a  pen  in  one  hand,  a  tablet 
in  the  other ;  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine  are  similarly 
engaged ;  St.  Jerome,  to  whom  alone  the  celestial  vision  ap- 
pears to  be  visible,  is  looking  up  with  awe  and  wonder. 
Guido,  in  a  celebrated  picture  (Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg), 
has  represented  the  Doctors  of  the  Church  communing  on 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin.  The  figures  are 
admirable  for  thoughtful  depth  of  character  in  the  expression, 
and  for  the  noble  arrangement  of  the  draperies ;  above  is  seen 
the  Virgin,  floating  amid  clouds,  in  snow-white  drapery,  and 
sustained  by  angels ;  visible,  however,  to  St.  Jerome  and  St. 
Ambrose  only. 

Rubens  has  treated  the  Fathers  several  times  ;  the  colossal 
picture  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  [London]  is  well  known, 
where  they  appear  before  us  as  moving  along  in  a  grand  pro- 
cession ;  St.  Jerome  comes  last  (he  should  be  first ;  but  on 
these  points  Rubens  was  not  particular)  :  he  seems  in  deep 
contemplation,  enveloped  in  the  rich  scarlet  robes  of  a  cardi- 
nal of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  turning  the  leaves  of  his 
great  book.  In  another  picture  we  have  the  Four  Fathers 
seated,  discussing  the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist ;  St.  Jerome 
points  to  a  passage  in  the  Scriptures ;  St.  Gregory  is  turning 
the  page  ;  they  appear  to  be  engaged  in  argument ;  the  other 
two  are  listening  earnestly.  There  is  another  picture  .by  Ru- 
bens in  which  the  usual  attributes  of  the  Fathers  are  borne 
aloft  by  angels,  while  they  sit  communing  below. 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  four  great  Doctors  of  the  Western  Church 
are  grouped  in  devotional  pictures.  We  will  now  consider 
them  separately,  each  according  to  his  individual  character 
and  history. 


280  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 


ST.  JEROME 

Lat.  Sanctus  Hieronymus.  Ital.  San  Geronimo  or  Girolamo.  Fr. 
St.  Jerome,  Hierome,  or  Geroisme.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Hieroni- 
mus.  Patron  of  scholars  and  students,  and  more  particularly  of 
students  in  theology.  (Sept.  30,  A.  D.  420.) 

Of  the  four  Latin  Doctors,  St.  Jerome,  as  a  subject  of 
painting,  is  by  far  the  most  popular.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
not  merely  the  exceedingly  interesting  and  striking  character 
of  the  man,  and  the  picturesque  incidents  of  his  life,  but  also 
his  great  importance  and  dignity  as  founder  of  Monachism  in 
the  West,  arid  as  author  of  the  universally  received  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  into  the  Latin  language 
(called  "  The  Vulgate  ").  There  is  scarcely  a  collection  of 
pictures  in  which  we  do  not  find  a  St.  Jerome,  either  doing 
penance  in  the  desert,  or  writing  his  famous  translation,  or 
meditating  on  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation. 

Jerome  was  born  about  A.  D.  342,  at  Stridonium,  in  Dal- 
matia.  His  father,  Eusebius,*  was  rich  ;  and  as  he  showed  the 
happiest  disposition  for  learning,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  finish 
his  studies.  There,  through  his  own  passions,  and  the  evil 
example  of  his  companions,  he  fell  into  temptation,  and  for  a 
time  abandoned  himself  to  worldly  pleasures.  But  the  love 
of  virtue,  as  well  as  the  love  of  learning,  was  still  strong 
within  him :  he  took  up  the  profession  of  law,  and  became 
celebrated  for  his  eloquence  in  pleading  before  the  tribunals. 
When  more  than  thirty,  he  travelled  into  Gaul,  and  visited 
the  schools  of  learning  there.  It  was  about  this  time  that  he 
was  baptized,  and  vowed  himself  to  perpetual  celibacy.  In 
373,  he  travelled  into  the  East,  to  animate  his  piety  by  dwell- 
ing for  a  time  among  the  scenes  hallowed  by  the  presence  of 
the  Saviour ;  and,  on  his  way  thither,  he  visited  some  of  the 
famous  Oriental  hermits  and  ascetics,  of  whom  he  has  given 
us  such  a  graphic  account,  and  whose  example  inspired  him 
with  a  passion  for  solitude  and  a  monastic  life.  Shortly  after 
his  arrival  in  Syria,  he  retired  to  a  desert  in  .  Chalcis,  on  the 
confines  of  Arabia,  and  there  he  spent  four  years  in  study  and 
seclusion,  'supporting  himself  by  the  labor  of  his  hands.  He 
has  left  us  a  most  vivid  picture  of  his  life  of  penance  in  the 


ST.    JEROME  281 

wilderness ;  of  his  trials  and  temptations,  his  fastings,  his 
sickness  of  soul  and  body ;  and  we  must  dwell  for  a  moment 
on  his  own  description,  in  order  to  show  with  what  literal  and 
circumstantial  truth  the  painters  have  rendered  it.  He  says, 
in  one  of  his  epistles,  "  Oh  how  often,  in  the  desert,  in  that 
vast  solitude  which,  parched  by  the  sultry  sun,  affords  a  dwell- 
ing to  the  monks,  did  I  fancy  myself  in  the  midst  of  the 
luxuries  of  Rome  !  I  sate  alone,  for  I  was  full  of  bitterness. 
My  misshapen  limbs  were  rough  with  sackcloth,  and  my  skin 
so  squalid  that  I  might  have  been  mistaken  for  an  Ethiopian. 
Tears  and  groans  were  my  occupation  every  day,  and  all  day 
long.  If  sleep  surprised  me  unawares,  my  naked  bones,  which 
scarcely  held  together,  rattled  on  the  earth."  His  companions, 
he  says,  "  were  scorpions  and  wild  beasts ;  "  his  home,  if  a 
recess  among  rocks  and  precipices."  Yet,  in  the  midst  of  this 
horrible  self-torture  and  self-abasement,  he  describes  himself  as 
frequently  beset  by  temptations  to  sin  and  sensual  indulgence, 
and  haunted  by  demons :  at  other  times,  as  consoled  by  voices 
and  visions  from  heaven.  Besides  these  trials  of  the  flesh 
and  the  spirit,  he  had  others  of  the  intellect.  His  love  of 
learning,  his  admiration  of  the  great  writers  of  classical  anti- 
quity, —  of  Plato  and  Cicero,  —  made  him  impatient  of  the 
rude  simplicity  of  the  Christian  historians.  He  describes  him- 
self as  fasting  before  he  opened  Cicero  ;  and,  as  a  further 
penance,  he  forced  himself  to  study  Hebrew,  which  at  first 
filled  him  with  disgust,  and  this  disgust  appeared  to  him  a 
capital  sin.  In  one  of  his  distempered  visions,  he  fancied  he 
heard  the  last  trumpet  sounded  in  his  ear  by  an  angel,  and 
summoning  him  before  the  judgment-seat  of  God.  "Who  art 
thou  ?  "  demanded  the  awful  voice.  "  A  Christian,"  replied 
the  trembling  Jerome.  "  'T  is  false  !  "  replied  the  voice, 
"  thou  art  no  Christian :  thou  art  a  Ciceronian.  Where  the 
treasure  is,  there  will  the  heart  be  also."  He  persevered, 
and  conquered  the  difficulties  of  Hebrew  ;  and  then,  wearied 
by  the  religious  controversies  in  the  East,  after  ten  years' 
residence  there,  he  returned  to  Rome. 

But  neither  the  opposition  he  had  met  with,  nor  his  four 
years  of  solitude  and  penance  in  the  desert,  had  subdued  the 
fiery  enthusiasm  of  temperament  which  characterized  this  cele- 
brated man.  At  Rome  he  boldly  combated  the  luxurious  self- 
indulgence  of  the  clergy,  and  preached  religious  abstinence  and 


282  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHUECH 

mortification.  He  was  particularly  remarkable  for  the  influ- 
ence he  obtained  over  the  Roman  women ;  we  find  them,  sub- 
dued or  excited  by  his  eloquent  exhortations,  devoting  them- 
selves to  perpetual  chastity,  distributing  their  possessions 
among  the  poor,  or  spending  their  days  in  attendance  on  the 
sick,  and  ready  to  follow  their  teacher  to  the  Holy  Land  —  to 
the  desert  —  even  to  death.  His  most  celebrated  female  con- 
vert was  Paula,  a  noble  Roman  matron,  a  descendant  of  the 
Scipios  and  the  Gracchi.  Marcella,  another  of  these  Roman 
ladies,  was  the  first  who,  in  the  East,  collected  together  a 
number  of  pious  women  to  dwell  together  in  community  :  hence 
she  is,  by  some  authors,  considered  as  the  first  nun  ;  but  others 
contend  that  Martha,  the  sister  of  Mary  Magdalene,  was  the 
first  who  founded  a  religious  community  of  women. 

After  three  years'  sojourn  at  Rome,  St.  Jerome  returned  to 
Palestine,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  a  monastery  he  had 
founded  at  Bethlehem.  When,  in  extreme  old  age,  he  became 
sensible  of  the  approach  of  death,  he  raised  with  effort  his 
emaciated  limbs,  and,  commanding  himself  to  be  carried  into 
the  chapel  of  the  monastery,  he  received  the  sacrament  for  the 
last  time  from  the  hands  of  the  priest,  and  soon  after  expired. 
He  died  in  420,  leaving,  besides  his  famous  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  numerous  controversial  writings,  epistles,  and  com- 
mentaries. 

We  read  in  the  legendary  history  of  St.  Jerome,  that  one 
evening,  as  he  sat  within  the  gates  of  his  monastery  at  Bethle- 
hem, a  lion  entered,  limping  as  in  pain ;  and  all  the  brethren, 
when  they  saw  the  lion,  fled  in  terror :  but  Jerome  arose,  and 
went  forward  to  meet  him,  as  though  he  had  been  a  guest. 
And  the  lion  lifted  up  his  paw,  and  St.  Jerome,  on  examining 
it,  found  that  it  was  wounded  by  a  thorn,  which  he  extracted ; 
and  he  tended  the  lion  till  he  was  healed.  The  grateful 
beast  remained  with  his  benefactor,  and  Jerome  confided  to 
him  the  task  of  guarding  an  ass  which  was  employed  in  bring- 
ing firewood  from  the  forest.  On  one  occasion,  the  lion  having 
gone  to  sleep  while  the  ass  was  at  pasture,  some  merchants 
passing  by  carried  away  the  latter ;  and  the  lion,  after  search- 
ing for  him  in  vain,  returned  to  the  monastery  with  drooping 
head,  as  one  ashamed.  St.  Jerome,  believing  that  he  had 
devoured  his  companion,  commanded  that  the  daily  task  of  the 


ST.   JEROME  283 

ass  should  be  laid  upon  the  lion,  and  that  the  fagots  should 
be  bound  on  his  back,  to  which  he  magnanimously  submitted, 
until  the  ass  was  recovered ;  which  was  in  this  wise.  One 
day,  the  lion,  having  finished  his  task,  ran  hither  and  thither, 
still  seeking  his  companion ;  and  he  saw  a  caravan  of  mer- 
chants approaching,  and  a  string  of  camels,  which,  according 
to  the  Arabian  custom,  were  led  by  an  ass ;  and  when  the  lion 
recognized  his  friend,  he  drove  the  camels  into  the  convent, 
and  so  terrified  the  merchants  that  they  confessed  the  theft, 
and  received  pardon  from  St.  Jerome. 

The  introduction  of  the  lion  into  pictures  of  St.  Jerome  is 
supposed  to  refer  to  this  legend :  but  in  this  instance,  as  in 
many  others,  the  reverse  was  really  the  case.  The  lion  was 
in  very  ancient  times  adopted  as  the  symbol  befitting  St. 
Jerome,  from  his  fervid,  fiery  nature,  and  his  life  in  the 
wilderness ;  and  in  later  times,  the  legend  invented  to  explain 
the  symbol  was  gradually  expanded  into  the  story  as  given 
above. 

Representations  of  St.  Jerome,  in  pictures,  prints,  and  sculp- 
ture, are  so  numerous  that  it  were  in  vain  to  attempt  to  give 
any  detailed  account  of  them,  even  of  the  most  remarkable. 
All,  however,  may  be  included  under  the  following  classifica- 
tion, and,  according  to  the  descriptions  given,  may  be  easily 
recognized. 

The  devotional  subjects  and  single  figures  represent  St.  Je- 
rome in  one  of  his  three  great  characters.  1.  As  patron  Saint 
and  Doctor  of  the  Church.  2.  As  Translator  and  Commen- 
tator of  the  Scriptures.  3.  As  Penitent.  As  Doctor  of  the 
Church,  and  teacher,  he  enters  into  every  scheme  of  decoration, 
and  finds  a  place  in  all  sacred  buildings.  As  Saint  and  Peni- 
tent, he  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  convents  and  churches  of 
the  Jeronymites,  who  claim  him  as  their  Patriarch. 

When  placed  before  us  as  the  patron  saint  and  father  of 
divinity,  he  is  usually  standing  full  length,  either  habited  in 
the  cardinal's  robes,  or  with  the  cardinal's  hat  lying  at  his  feet. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  observe,  that  there  is  no  historical 
authority  for  making  St.  Jerome  a  cardinal.  Cardinal-priests 
were  not  ordained  till  three  centuries  later ;  but  as  the  other 
fathers  were  all  of  high  ecclesiastical  rank,  and  as  St.  Jerome 
obstinately  refused  all  such  distinction,  it  has  been  thought 


284  THE    DOCTOKS    OF   THE    CHURCH 

necessary,  for  the  sake  of  his  dignity,  to  make  him  a  cardinal : 
another  reason  may  be,  that  he  .performed,  in  the  court  of 
Pope  Dalmasius,  those  offices  since  discharged  by  the  cardinal- 
deacon.  In  some  of  the  old  Venetian  pictures,  instead  of  the 
official  robes  of  a  cardinal,  he  is  habited  in  loose  ample  red 
drapery,  part  of  which  is  thrown  over  his  head.  When  repre- 
sented with  his  head  uncovered,  his  forehead  is  lofty  and  bald, 
his  beard  is  very  long,  flowing  even  to  his  girdle ;  his  features 
fine  and  sharp,  his  nose  aquiline.  In  his  hand  he  holds  a  book 
or  a  scroll,  and  frequently  the  emblematical  church,  of  Avhich 
he  was  the  great  support  and  luminary  :  and,  to  make  the 
application  stronger  and  clearer,  rays  of  light  are  seen  issuing 
from  the  door  of  the  church. 

1.  A  signal  instance  of  the  treatment  of  Jerome  as  patron 
saint  occurs  in  a  fine  picture  by  Wohlgemuth,1  the  master  of 
Albert  Dlirer  (Vienna  Gallery).  It  is  an  altar-piece  represent- 
ing the  glorification  of  the  saint,  and  consists  of  three  compart- 
ments. In  the  centre,  St.  Jerome  stands  on  a  magnificent 
throne,  and  lays  his  left  hand  on  the  head  of  a  lion  raised  up 
on  his  hind  legs :  the  donors  of  the  picture,  a  man  and  a 
woman,  kneel  in  front ;  on  each  side  are  windows  opening  on 
a  landscape,  wherein  various  incidents  of  the  life  of  St.  Jerome 
are  represented ;  on  the  right,  his  Penance  in  the  Wilderness 
and  his  Landing  at  Cyprus ;  and  on  the  left,  the  merchants 
who  had  carried  off  the  ass  bring  propitiatory  gifts,  which  the 
saint  rejects,  and  other  men  are  seen  felling  wood  and  loading 
the  lion.  On  the  inner  shutters  or  wings  of  the  central  pic- 
ture are  represented,  on  the  right,  the  three  other  doctors,  — 
St.  Augustine,  with  the  flaming  heart ;  St.  Ambrose,  with  the 
beehive  —  both  habited  as  bishops  ;  and  St.  Gregory,  wearing 
his  tiara,  and  holding  a  large  book  (his  famous  Homilies)  in 
his  hand.  On  the  left,  three  apostles  with  their  proper  attri- 
butes —  St.  Andrew,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  Bartholomew ;  on 
the  other  side  are  represented,  to  the  right,  St.  Henry  II. 
holding  a  church  (the  cathedral  of  Bamberg),  and  a  sword,  his 
proper  attributes ;  and  his  wife,  St.  Cunegunda.2  On  the  left, 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  and  St.  Martin.  There  are  besides, 

1  [The  picture  is  catalogued  as  an  unknown  under  the  indefinite  name 
"  Meister  vom  heil.  Hieronvmus  in  Wien."  About  A.  n.  1511.] 

-  In  the  catalogue,  St.  Cunegunda  is  styled  St.  Elizabeth  Queen  of  Hun- 
$'<ry,  and  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  is  styled  St.  Elizabeth  Queen  of  Portugal. 


ST.    JEROME  285 

to  close  in  the  whole,  two  outer  doors :  on  the  inner  side,  to 
the  right,  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Kilian ; l  on  the  left,  St.  Cath- 
erine and  St.  Ursula ;  and  on  the  exterior  of  the  whole  the 


St.  Jerome  (Ghirlandajo) 

mass  of  St.  Gregory,  with  various  personages  and  objects  con- 
nected with  the  Passion  of  Christ.  The  whole  is  about  six 
feet  high,  dated  1511,  and  may  bear  a  comparison,  for  elabo- 

1  Irish  Bishop  of  Wiirtzbur£,  and  Patron,  A.  n.  689. 


286  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

rate  and  multifarious  detail  and  exquisite  painting,  with  the 
famous  Van  Eyck  altar-piece  in  St.  John's  Church  at  Ghent.1 

2.  In  his  character  of  patron,  St.  Jerome  is  a  frequent  sub- 
ject of  sculpture.  There  is  a  Gothic  figure  of  him  in  Henry 
tfee  Seventh's  Chapel  [Westminster  Abbey],  habited  in  the 
cardinal's  robes,  the  lion  fawning  vipon  him. 

When  St.  Jerome  is  represented  in  his  second  great  charac- 
ter, as  the  translator  of  the  Scriptures,  he  is  usually  seated  in 
a  cave  or  in  a  cell,  busied  in  reading  or  in  writing ;  he  wears  a 
loose  robe  thrown  over  his  wasted  form ;  and  either  he  looks 
down  intent  on  his  book,  or  he  looks  up  as  if  awaiting  heavenly 
inspiration :  sometimes  an  angel  is  dictating  to  him. 

1.  In  an  old  Italian  print,  which  I  have  seen,  he  is  seated 
on  the  ground  reading,  in  spectacles  ;  an  anachronism  frequent 
in  the  old  painters.      Sometimes  he  is  seated  under  the  shade 
of  a  tree  ;  or  within  a  cavern,  writing  at  a  rude  table  formed 
of  a  stump  of  a  tree,  or  a  board  laid  across  two  fragments  of 
rock ;  as  in  a  beautiful  picture  by  Ghirlandajo,  remarkable  for 
its  solemn  and  tranquil  feeling.      (Florence,  Ogni  Santi.) 

2.  Very  celebrated  is  an  engraving  of  this  subject  by  Albert 
Diirer.     The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a  cell  at   Bethlehem  ; 
two  windows  on  the  left  pour  across  the  picture  a  stream  of 
sunshine,  which  is  represented  with  wonderful  effect.     St.  Je- 
rome is  seen  in  the  background,  seated  at  a  desk,  most  intently 
writing  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures ;  in  front  the  lion  is 
crouching,  and  a  fox  is  seen  asleep.     These  two  animals  are 
here  emblems,  —  the  one,  of  the  courage  and  vigilance,  the 
other  of  the  wisdom  or  acuteness,  of  the  saint.     The  execu- 
tion of  this  print  is  a  miracle  of  Art,  and  it  is  very  rare. 
There  is  an  exquisite  little  picture  by  Elzheimer  copied  from 
it,  and  of  the  same  size,  at  Hampton  Court.      I  need  hardly 
observe,  that  here  the  rosary  and  the  pot  of  holy  water  are 
anachronisms,  as  well  as  the  cardinal's  hat.     By  Albert  Diirer 
we  have  also  St.  Jerome  writing  in  a  cavern,  and  St.  Jerome 
reading  in  his  cell ;   both  woodcuts. 

1  "In  this  picture  we  recognize  the  master  to  whom  Albert  Diirer  was 
indebted  for  his  education;  indeed,  Wohlgemuth  here  surpasses  his  great 
scholar  in  the  expression  of  gentleness  and  simplicity,  particularly  in  the 
heads  of  some  of  the  female  saints."  Handbook  of  Painting:  German,  Flem- 
ish, and  Dutch  Schools  [Edition  of  1846],  p.  111.  [Later  editions  omit  this 
passage.] 


ST.    JEROME  287 

3.  Even  more  beautiful  is  a  print  of  Lucas  v.  Leyden,  in 
which  St.  Jerome  is  reclining  in  his  cell  and  reading  intently ; 
the  lion  licks  his  foot. 

4.  In  a  picture  by  Lucas  Cranach,  Albert  of  Brandenburg, 
elector  of  Mayence  (1527),  is  represented  in  the  character  pf 
St.  Jerome,  seated  in  the  wilderness,  and  writing  at  a  table 
formed  of  a  plank  laid  across  two  stumps  of  trees :   he  is  in 
the  cardinal-robes ;  and  in   the  foreground  a   lion,  a  hare,  a 
beaver,  a  partridge,  and  a  hind,  beautifully  painted,  express 
the  solitude  of  his  life.     In  the  background  the  caravan  of 
merchants  is  seen  entering  the  gate  of  the  monastery,  con- 
ducted by  the  faithful  lion. 

5.  The  little  picture  by  Domenichino,  in  our  National  Gal- 
lery,  represents   St.  Jerome  looking  up  from  his  book,  and 
listening  to   the   accents  of    the   angel.      6.   In  a  picture  by 
Tiarini  (Bologna,  S.  Maria  Maggiore),  it  is  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, and  not  an  angel,  who  dictates  while  he  writes.      7.   In 
a   picture   by  Titian,   St.   Jerome,  seated,  holds  a  book,  and 
gazes  up  at   a    crucifix   suspended  in  the  skies  ;    the   lion   is 
drinking  at  a  fountain.      Out  of  twenty  prints  of  St.  Jerome 
after  Titian,  there  are  at  least  eight  which  represent  him  at 
study  or  writing. 

It  is  in  the  double  character  of  Doctor  of  the  Church,  and 
translator  of  the  Scriptures,  that  we  find  St.  Jerome  so  fre- 
quently introduced  into  pictures  of  the  Madonna,  and  grouped 
with  other  saints.  Two  of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  in  the 
world  suggest  themselves  here  as  examples :  1.  "  The  Ma- 
donna della  Pesce  "  of  Raphael ;  where  the  Virgin,  seated  on 
a  raised  throne,  holds  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms  ;  on  her 
right  hand,  the  Archangel  Raphael  presents  the  young  Tobias, 
who  holds  the  fish,  the  emblem  of  Christianity  or  Baptism. 
On  the  other  side  kneels  St.  Jerome,  holding  an  open  book, 
his  beard  sweeping  to  his  girdle ;  the  lion  at  his  feet ;  the  In- 
fant Christ,  while  he  bends  forward  to  greet  Tobias,  has  one 
hand  upon  St.  Jerome's  book  :  the  whole  is  a  beautiful  and 
expressive  allegory.  The  picture,  originally  at  Naples,  was 
purchased  or  appropriated  by  Philip  IV.  for  the  Church  of  the 
Escurial,  which  belonged  to  the  Jeronymites.  [It  is  now  in 
the  Madrid  Museum.]  2.  Correggio's  picture,  called  "The 
St.  Jerome  of  Parma,"  represents  the  Infant  Christ  on  the 


288 


THE   DOCTOKS   OF   THE   CHURCH 


knees  of  his  mother  :  Mary  Magdalene  bends  to  kiss  his  feet : 
St.  Jerome  stands  in  front,  presenting  his  translation  of  the 
Scriptures.  [Gallery  at  Parma  ;  called  "  II  Giorno."] 

The  penitent  St.  Jerome  seems  to  have  been  adopted  through- 
out the  Christian  Church  as  the  approved  symbol  of  Christian 
penitence,  self-denial,  and  self-abasement.  No  devotional  sub- 
ject, if  we  except  the  "  Madonna  and  Child  "  and  the  "  Magda- 
lene," is  of  such  perpetual  recurrence.  In  the  treatment  it 
has  been  infinitely  varied.  The  scene  is  generally  a  wild 
rocky  solitude  :  St.  Jerome,  half  naked,  emaciated,  with  matted 
hair  and  beard,  is  seen  on  his  knees  before  a  crucifix,  beating 

his  breast  with  a  stone. 
The  lion  is  almost  al- 
ways introduced,  some- 
times asleep,  or  crouch- 
ing at  his  feet ;  some- 
times keeping  guard, 
sometimes  drinking  at 
a  stream.  The  most 
magnificent  example  of 
this  treatment  is  by 
Titian  (Brera,  Milan)  : 
St.  Jerome,  kneeling 
on  one  knee,  half  sup- 
ported by  a  craggy  rock, 
and  holding  the  stone, 
looks  up  with  eager 
devotion  to  a  cross,  art 
lessly  fixed  into  a  cleft 
in  the  rock  ;  two  books 
lie  on  a  cliff  behind  : 

at  his  feet  are  a  skull  and  hour-glass  ;  and  the  lion  reposes  in 
front.  The  feeling  of  deep  solitude,  and  a  kind  of  sacred 
horror  breathed  over  this  picture,  are  inconceivably  fine  and 
impressive.  Another  by  Titian,  but  inferior,  is  in  the  Louvre  ; 
and  there  are  at  least  twelve  engravings  of  St.  Jerome  doing 
penance,  after  the  same  painter :  among  them  a  superb  land- 
scape, in  which  are  seen  a  lion  and  a  lioness  prowling  in  the 
wilderness,  while  the  saint  is  doing  penance  in  the  foreground. 
By  Agostino  Caracci  there  is  a  famous  engraving  of  "  St 


St.  Jerome  (Raphael) 


ST.   JEROME  289 

Jerome  doing  penance  in  a  cave,"  called  from  its  size  the  great 
St.  Jerome.  But  to  particularize  further  would  be  endless  : 
I  know  scarcely  any  Italian  painter  since  the  fifteenth  century 
who  has  not  treated  this  subject  at  least  once. 

The  Spanish  painters  have  rendered  it  with  a  gloomy  power, 
and  revelled  in  its  mystic  significance.  In  the  Spanish  gallery 
of  the  Louvre  I  counted  at  least  twenty  St.  Jeromes :  the  old 


The  Penance  of  St.  Jerome  (Albert  Diirer) 

German  painters  and  engravers  also  delighted  in  it,  on  account 
of  its  picturesque  capabilities. 

Albert  Diirer  represents  St.  Jerome  kneeling  before  a  cru- 
cifix, which  he  has  suspended  against  the  trunk  of  a  massy 
tree ;  an  open  book  is  near  it ;  he  hplds  in  his  right  hand  a 
flint-stone,  with  which  he  is  about  to  strike  his  breast,  all 
wounded  and  bleeding  from  the  blows  already  inflicted ;  the 
lion  crouches  behind  him,  and  in  the  distance  is  a  stag. 

The  penitent  St.  Jerome  is  not  a  good  subject  for  sculpture  ; 
the  undraped,  meagre  form,  and  the  abasement  of  suffering, 
are  disagreeable  in  this  treatment :  yet  such  representations 


290  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

are  constantly  met  with  in  churches.  The  famous  colossal 
statue  by  Torrigiano,  now  in  the  Museum  at  Seville,  represents 
St.  Jerome  kneeling  on  a  rock,  a  stone  in  one  hand,  a  crucifix 
in  the  other.  At  Venice,  in  the  Frari,  there  is  a  statue  [by 
Alessandro  Vittoria]  of  St.  Jerome,  standing,  with  the  stone 
in  his  hand  and  the  lion  at  his  feet ;  too  majestic  for  the  Peni- 
tent. There  are  several  other  statues  of  St.  Jerome  at  Venice, 
from  the  Liberi  and  Lombardi  schools,  all  fine  as  statues ;  but 
the  penitent  saint  is  idealized  into  the  patron  saint  of  penitents. 

When  figures  of  St.  Jerome  as  penitent  are  introduced  in 
Madonna  pictures,  or  in  the  Passion  of  Christ,  then  such  fig- 
ures are  devotional,  and  symbolical,  in  a  general  sense,  of 
Christian  repentance. 

There  is  an  early  picture  of  the  Crucifixion,  by  Raphael, 
in  which  he  has  placed  St.  Jerome  at  the  foot  of  the  cross, 
beating  his  breast  with  a  stone.  [Now  in  the  collection  of 
L.  Mond,  Esq.,  London.] 

The  pictures  from  the  life  of  St.  Jerome  comprise  a  variety 
of  subjects  :  1.  "  He  receives  the  cardinal's  hat  from  the 
Virgin  ;  "  sometimes  it  is  the  Infant  Christ,  seated  in  the  lap 
of  the  Virgin,  who  presents  it  to  him.  2.  "  He  disputes  with 
the  Jewish  doctors  on  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  ;  "  in 
a  curious  picture  by  Juan  de  Valdes  (Louvre,  Spanish  Gal- 
lery).1 He  stands  on  one  side  of  a  table  in  an  attitude  of  au- 
thority ;  the  rabbis,  each  of  whom  has  a  demon  looking  over 
his  shoulder,  are  searching  their  books  for  arguments  against 
him.  3.  "  St.  Jerome,  while  studying  Hebrew  in  the  solitude 
of  Chalcida,  hears  in  a  vision  the  sound  of  the  last  trumpet, 
calling  men  to  judgment."  This  is  a  common  subject,  and 
styled  "The  Vision  of  St.  Jerome."  I  have  met  with  no  ex- 
ample earlier  than  the  fifteenth  century.  In  general,  he  is 
lying  on  the  ground,  and  an  angel  sounds  the  trumpet  from 
above.  In  a  composition  by  Ribera  he  holds  a  pen  in  one 
hand  and  a  penknife  in  the  other  :  he  seems  to  have  been 
arrested  in  the  very  act  of  mending  his  pen  by  the  blast  of  the 
trumpet :  the  figure  of  the  saint,  wasted  even  to  skin  and 
bone,  and  his  look  of  petrified  amazement,  are  very  fine,  not- 
withstanding the  commonplace  action.  In  a  picture  by  Sub- 
leyras,  in  the  Louvre,  St.  Jerome  is  gazing  upwards,  with  an 
astonished  look  ;  three  archangels  sound  their  trumpets  from 
1  [The  Spanish  Gallery  is  now  dispersed.] 


ST.   JEROME  291 

above.  In  a  picture  by  Antonio  Pereda,  at  Madrid,  St.  Je- 
rome not  only  hears  in  his  vision  the  sound  of  the  last  trump, 
he  sees  the  dead  arise  from  their  graves  around  him.  Lastly, 
by  way  of  climax,  I  may  mention  a  picture  in  the  Louvre,  by 
a  modern  French  painter,  Sigalon :  St.  Jerome  is  in  a  convul- 
sive fit,  and  the  three  angels,  blowing  their  trumpets  in  his 
ears,  are  like  furies  sent  to  torment  and  madden  the  sinner, 
rather  than  to  rouse  the  saint.  [Exhibited  at  Salon,  1831.] 

While  doing  penance  in  the  desert,  St.  Jerome  was   some- 
times haunted  by  temptations,  as  well  as  amazed  by  terrors. 

4.  Domenichino,  in  one  of  the  frescoes  in  St.  Onofrio  [Rome], 
represents  the  particular  kind  of  temptation  by  which  the  saint 
was  in  imagination  assailed :  while  he  is  fervently  praying  and 
beating  his  breast,  a  circle  of  beautiful  nymphs,  seen  in  the 
background,  weave  a  graceful  dance.     Vasari  has  had  the  bad 
taste  to  give  us  a  penitent  St.  Jerome  with  Venus  and  Cupids 
in  the  background  :  one  arch  little  Cupid  takes  aim  at  him, 
—  an  offensive  instance  of  the  extent  to  which,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  classical  ideas  had  mingled  with  and  depraved  Chris- 
tian Art.     (Pitti,  Florence.) 

5.  Guido.      "  St.  Jerome  translating   the  Scriptures  while 
an  angel  dictates :  "  life  size  and  very  fine  (except  the  angel, 
who  is  weak,  and  reminds  one  of  a  water-nymph)  ;  in  his  pale 
manner.      (Lichtenstein  Gallery,  Vienna.) 

6.  Domenichino.      "  St.  Jerome  is   flagellated   by  an  angel 
for  preferring  Cicero  to  the   Hebrew  writings ;  "  also  in  the 
St.  Onofrio.      The  Cicero,  torn  from  his  hand,  lies  at  his  feet. 
Here  the  saint  is  a  young  man,  and  the  whole  scene  is  repre- 
sented as  a  vision. 

7.  But  St.  Jerome  was  comforted  by  visions  of  glory,  as  well 
as  haunted  by  terrors  and  temptations.     In  the  picture  by 
Parmigiano,  in  our  National  Gallery,  St.  Jerome  is  sleeping  in 
the  background,  while  St.  John  the  Baptist  points  upwards  to 
a  celestial  vision  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  seen  in,  the  opening 
heavens  above :  the  upper  part  of  this  picture  is  beautiful  and 
full  of  dignity  ;  but  the  saint  is  lying  stretched  on   the   earth 
in  an  attitude  so  uneasy  and  distorted  that  it  would  seem  as 
if  he  were  condemned  to  do  penance  even  in  his   sleep  ;  and 
the  St.  John  has  always  appeared  to  me  mannered  and  theatrical. 


292 


THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 


St.  Jerome  and  the  Lion.    (Coll'  Antonio  del  Fiore.) 

8.  The  story  of  the  lion  is  often  represented.      St.  Jerome 
is  seated  in  his  cell,  attired  in  the  monk's  habit  and  cowl ;  the 
lion  approaches,  and  lays  his  paw  upon  his  knee ;  a  cardinal's 
hat  and  books  are  lying  near  him  ;  and,  to  express  the  self- 
denial  of  the  saint,  a  mouse   is   peeping  into  an  empty  cup. 
Kugler  pronounces  this  to  be  a  Flemish  picture. 

In  another  example,  by  Vittore  Carpaccio,  the  lion  enters 
the  cell,  and  three  monks,  attendants  on  St.  Jerome,  flee  in 
terror. 

9.  The  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome  is  the  subject  of  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  in  the  world,  —  the  St.  Jerome 
of   Domenichino,   which   has  been  thought  worthy  of  being 
placed  opposite  to  the  Transfiguration  of  Raphael,  in  the  Vati- 
can.    The  aged  saint  —  feeble,  emaciated,  dying — is  borne  in 
the  arms  of  his  disciples  to  the  chapel  of  his   monastery,  and 
placed  within  the   porch.     A  young  priest  sustains  him ;  St. 
Paula,  kneeling,  kisses  one  of  his  thin  bony  hands ;  the  saint 
fixes  his  eager  eyes  on  the   countenance  of  the   priest,  who  is 


LAST  COMMUNION  OF  ST.  JEROME  (DOMBNICHINO) 


ST.    JEROME  293 

about  to  administer  the  sacrament,  —  a  noble  dignified  figure 
in  a  rich  ecclesiastical  dress ;  a  deacon  holds  the  cup,  and  an 
attendant  priest  the  book  and  taper ;  the  lion  droops  his  head 
with  an  expression  of  grief ;  the  eyes  and  attention  of  all  are 
on  the  dying  saint,  while  four  angels,  hovering  above,  look 
down  upon  the  scene. 

Agostino  Caracci,  in  a  grand  picture  now  in  the  Bologna 
Gallery,  had  previously  treated  the  same  subject  with  much 
feeling  and  dramatic  power ;  but  here  the  saint  is  not  so  wasted 
and  so  feeble,  St.  Paula  is  not  present,  and  the  lion  is  tenderly 
licking  his  feet. 

Older  than  either,  and  very  beautiful  and  solemn,  is  a  pic- 
ture by  Vittore  Carpaccio,  in  which  the  saint  is  kneeling  in  the 
porch  of  a  church,  surrounded  by  his  disciples,  and  the  lion  is 
seen  outside. 

10.  "The  Death  of  St.  Jerome."     In  the  picture  by  Star- 
nina  he  is  giving  his  last  instructions  to  his  disciples,  and  the 
expression  of  solemn  grief  in  the  old  heads  around  is  very 
fine.     In  a  Spanish  picture  he  is  extended  on  a  couch  made 
of  hurdles,  and  expires  in  the  arms  of  his  monks. 

In  a  very  fine  anonymous  print,  dated  1614,  St.  Jerome  is 
dying  alone  in  his  cell  (this  version  of  the  subject  is  contrary 
to  all  authority  and  precedent)  :  he  presses  to  his  bosom  the 
Gospel  and  the  crucifix;  the  lion  looks  up  in  his  face  roaring, 
and  angels  bear  away  his  soul  to  heaven. 

11.  "  The  Obsequies  of  St.  Jerome."     In  the  picture  by 
Vittore  Carpaccio,  the  saint  is  extended  on  the  ground  before 
the  high  altar,  and  the  priests  around  are  kneeling  in  various 
attitudes  of  grief  or  devotion.     The  lion  is  seen  on  one  side.1 

I  will  mention  here  some  other  pictures  in  which  St. 
Jerome  figures  as  the  principal  personage. 

St.  Jerome  introducing  Charles  V.  into  Paradise  is  the  sub- 
ject of  a  large  fresco,  by  Luca  Giordano,  on  the  staircase  of 
the  Escurial. 

St.  Jerome  conversing  with  two  nuns,  probably  intended 
for  St.  Paula  and  St.  Marcella.2 

The  sleep  of  St.  Jerome.     He  is  watched  by  two  angels, 

1  The  three  frescoes  by  Carpaccio  are  in  the  Church  of   San  Giorgio  de' 
Schiavoni  at  Venice. 

2  It  was  in  the  Standish  Gallery  in  the  Louvre. 


294  THE   DOCTOES   OF   THE   CHURCH 

one  of  whom,  with  his  finger  on  his  lip,  commands  silence. 
(Engraved  by  Loli.) 

It  is  worth  remarking,  that  in  the  old  Venetian  pictures  St. 
Jerome  does  not  wear  the  proper  habit  and  hat  of  a  cardinal, 
but  an  ample  scarlet  robe,  part  of  which  is  thrown  over  his 
head  as  a  hood. 

The  history  of  St.  Jerome,  in  a  series,  is  often  found  in  the 
churches  and  convents  of  the  Jeronymites,  and  generally  con- 
sists of  the  following  subjects,  of  which  the  fourth  and  sixth 
are  often  omitted  :  — 

1.  He  is  baptised.  2.  He  receives  the  cardinal's  hat  from 
-the  Virgin.  3.  He  does  penance  in  the  desert,  beating  his 
breast  with  a  stone.  4.  He  meets  St.  Augustine.  5.  He  is 
studying  or  writing  in  a  cell.  6.  He  builds  the  convent  at 
Bethlehem.  7.  He  heals  the  wounded  lion.  8.  He  receives 
the  Last  Sacrament.  9.  He  dies  in  the  presence  of  his  disci- 
ples. 10.  He  is  buried. 

Considering  that  St.  Jerome  has  ever  been  venerated  as  one 
of  the  great  lights  of  the  Church,  it  is  singular  that  so  few 
churches  are  dedicated  to  him.  There  is  one  at  Rome, 
erected,  according  to  tradition,  on  the  very  spot  where  stood 
the  house  of  Santa  Paula,  where  she  entertained  St.  Jerome 
during  his  sojourn  at  Kome  in  382.  For  the  high  altar  of 
this  church,  Domenichino  painted  his  masterpiece  of  the  Com- 
munion of  St.  Jerome  already  described.  The  embarkation  of 
Saint  Paula,  to  follow  her  spiritual  teacher  St.  Jerome  to  the 
Holy  Land,  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Claude's  most  beautiful 
sea  pieces,  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington ; 
another  picture  of  this  subject,  the  figures  as  large  as  life,  is  in 
the  Brera  [Milan],  by  a  clever  Cremonese  painter,  Giuseppe 
Bottoni. 

St.  Jerome  has  detained  us  long ;  the  other  Fathers  are,  as 
subjects  of  Art,  much  less  interesting. 


ST.   AMBEOSE  295 


ST.  AMBROSE 

Lai.  S.  Ambrosius.  Ital.  Sant'  Ambrogio.  Fr.  St.  Ambroise. 
Ger.  Der  Heilige  Ambrosius.  Patron  Saint  of  Milan.  (April  4, 
A.  D.  397.) 

We  can  hardly  imagine  a  greater  contrast  than  between  the 
stern,  enthusiastic,  dreaming,  ascetic  Jerome,  and  the  states- 
man-like, practical,  somewhat  despotic  AMBROSE.  This  ex- 
traordinary man,  in  whose  person  the  priestly  character  assumed 
an  importance  and  dignity  till  then  unknown,  was  the  son  of  a 
prefect  of  Gaul,  bearing  the  same  name,  and  was  born  at 
Treves  in  the  year  340.  It  is  said  that,  when  an  infant  in 
the  cradle,  a  swarm  of  bees  alighted  on  his  mouth  without 
injuring  him.  The  same  story  was  told  of  Plato  and  of  Archi- 
lochus,  and  considered  prophetic  of  future  eloquence.  It  is 
from  this  circumstance  that  St.  Ambrose  is  represented  with 
the  bee-hive  near  him. 

Young  Ambrose,  after  pursuing  his  studies  at  Home  with 
success,  was  appointed  prefect  of  ^Emilia  and  Liguria  (Pied- 
mont and  Genoa),  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Milan. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  Bishop  of  Milan  died,  and  the  succes- 
sion was  hotly  disputed  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Arians. 
Ambrose  appeared  in  his  character  of  prefect,  to  allay  the  tu- 
mult ;  he  harangued  the  people  with  such  persuasive  eloquence 
that  they  .  were  hushed  into  respectful  silence  ;  and  in  the 
midst  a  child's  voice  was  heard  to  exclaim,  "  Ambrose  shall  be 
bishop  !  "  The  multitude  took  up  the  cry  as  though  it  had 
been  a  voice  from  heaven,  and  compelled  him  to  assume  the 
sacred  office.  He  attempted  to  avoid  the  honor  thus  laid 
upon  him  by  flight,  by  entreaties,  —  pleading  that,  though  a 
professed  Christian,  he  had  never  been  baptized:  in  vain!  the 
command  of  the  emperor  enforced  the  wishes  of  the  people  ; 
and  Ambrose,  being  baptized,  was,  within  eight  days  after- 
wards, consecrated  bishop  of  Milan.  He  has  since  been  re- 
garded as  the  patron  saint  of  that  city. 

He  began  by  distributing  all  his  worldly  goods  to  the  poor ; 
he  then  set  himself  to  study  the  sacred  writings,  and  to  render 
himself  in  all  respects  worthy  of  his  high  dignity.  "  The  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,"  says  Mr.  Milman,  "'met  in  the  person 
of  Ambrose  :  the  implacable  hostility  to  idolatry,  the  abhor- 


296  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHUKCH 

rence  of  every  deviation  from  the  established  formulary  of 
belief ;  the  wise  and  courageous  benevolence,  the  generous 
and  unselfish  devotion  to  the  great  interests  of  humanity." 

He  was  memorable  for  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  with 
which  he  invested  the  ceremonies  of  worship  :  they  had  never 
been  so  imposing.  He  particularly  cultivated  music,  and 
introduced  from  the  East  the  manner  of  chanting  the  service 
since  called  the  Ambrosian  chant. 

Two  things  were  especially  remarkable  in  the  life  and  char- 
acter of  St.  Ambrose.  The  first  was  the  enthusiasm  with 
which  he  advocated  celibacy  in  both  sexes  :  on  this  topic,  as 
we  are  assured,  he  was  so  persuasive,  that  mothers  shut  up 
their  daughters  lest  they  should  be  seduced  by  their  eloquent 
bishop  into  vows  of  chastity.  The  other  was  his  determination  to 
set  the  ecclesiastical  above  the  sovereign  or  civil  power  :  this 
principle,  so  abused  in  later  timeSj  was  in  the  days  of  Ambrose 
the  assertion  of  the  might  of  Christianity,  of  mercy,  of  justice, 
of  freedom,  over  heathenism,  tyranny,  cruelty,  slavery.  The 
dignity  with  which  he  refused  to  hold  any  communication  with 
the  Emperor  Maximus,  because  he  was  stained  with  the  blood 
of  Gratian,  and  his  resolute  opposition  to  the  Empress  Justina, 
who  interfered  with  his  sacerdotal  privileges,  were  two 
instances  of  this  spirit.  But  the  most  celebrated  incident  of 
his  life  is  his  conduct  with  regard  to  the  Emperor  Theodosius, 
the  last  great  emperor  of  Rome,  —  a  man  of  an  iron  will,  a 
despot,  and  a  warrior.  That  he  should  bend  in  trembling 
submission  at  the  feet  of  an  unarmed  priest,  and  shrink  before 
his  rebuke,  filled  the  whole  world  with  an  awful  idea  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  Church,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  Hilde- 
brands,  the  Perettis,  the  Caraffas  of  later  times.  With  regard 
to  St.  Ambrose,  this  assumption  of  moral  power,  this  high 
prerogative  of  the  priesthood,  had  hitherto  been  without  prece- 
dent, and  in  this  its  first  application  it  certainly  commands  our 
respect,  our  admiration,  and  our  sympathy. 

Theodosius,  with  all  his  great  qualities,  was  subject  to  fits 
of  violent  passion.  A  sedition,  or  rather  a  popular  affray,  had 
taken  place  in  Thessalonica ;  one  of  his  officers  was  ill-treated, 
and  some  lives  lost.  Theodosius,  in  the  first  moment  of  in- 
dignation, ordered  an  indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  seven  thousand  human  beings  —  men,  women,  and 


,  ST.   AMBROSE  297 

children  —  were  sacrificed.  The  conduct  of  Ambrose  on  this 
occasion  was  worthy  of  a  Christian  prelate  :  he  retired  from  the 
presence  of  the  emperor,  and  wrote  to  him  a  letter,  in  which, 
in  the  name  of  Christ,  of  His  Church,  and  of  all  the  bishops 
over  whom  he  had  any  influence,  he  denounced  this  inhuman 
act  with  the  strongest  expressions  of  abhorrence,  and  refused 
to  allow  the  sovereign,  thus  stained  with  innocent  blood,  to 
participate  in  the  sacraments  of  the  Church,  —  in  fact,  exconu 
municated  him.  In  vain  the  emperor  threatened,  supplicated ; 
in  vain  he  appeared  with  all  his  imperial  state  before  the 
doors  of  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  and  commanded  and  entreated 
entrance.  The  doors  were  closed  ;  and  even  on  Christmas  Day, 
when  he  again  as  a  suppliant  presented  himself,  Ambrose  ap- 
peared at  the  porch  and  absolutely  forbade  his  entrance,  unless 
he  should  choose  to  pass  into  the  sanctuary  over  the  dead 
body  of  the  intrepid  bishop.  At  length,  after  eight  montKs  of 
interdict,  Ambrose  consented  to  relent,  on  two  conditions : 
the  first,  that  the  emperor  should  publish  an  edict  by  which 
no  capital  punishment  could  be  executed  till  thirty  days  after 
conviction  of  a  crime  ;  the  second,  that  he  should  perform  a 
public  penance.  .  The  emperor  submitted ;  and,  clothed  in 
sackcloth,  grovelling  on  the  earth,  with  dust  and  ashes  on  his 
head,  lay  the  master  of  the  world  before  the  altar  of  Christ, 
because  of  innocent  blood  hastily  and  wrongfully  shed.  This 
was  a  great  triumph,  and  one  of  incalculable  results  —  some 
evil,  some  good. 

Another  incident  in  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose  should  be 
recorded  to  his  honor.  In  his  time,  "  the  first  blood  was 
judicially  shed  for  religious  opinion  "  —  and  the  first  man  who 
suffered  for  heresy  was  Priscilian,  a  noble  Spaniard :  on 
this  occasion,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Martin  of  Tours  raised  their 
protest  in  the  name  of  Christianity  against  this  dreadful  prece- 
dent ;  but  the  animosity  of  the  Spanish  bishops  prevailed, 
and  Priscilian  was  put  to  death  ;  so  early  were  bigotry  and 
cruelty  the  characteristics  of  the  Spanish  hierarchy  !  Ambrose 
refused  to  communicate  with  the  few  bishops  who  had  coun- 
tenanced this  transaction :  the  general  voice  of  the  Church  was 
against  it. 

The  man  who  had  thus  raised  himself  above  all  worldly 
power  was  endued  by  popular  enthusiasm  with  supernatural 


298  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH  # 

privileges  :  he  performed  cures  ;  he  saw  visions.  At  the  time 
of  the  consecration  of  the  new  cathedral  at  Milan,  a  miracu- 
lous dream  revealed  to  him  the  martyrdom  of  two  holy  men,  Ger- 
vasius  and  Protasius,  and  the  place  where  their  bodies  reposed. 
The  remains  were  disinterred,  conveyed  in  solemn  procession 
to  the  cathedral,  and  deposited  beneath  the  high  altar;  and  St. 
Gervasius  and  St.  Protasius  became,  on  the  faith  of  a  dream, 
distinguished  saints  in  the  Roman  calendar.  Ambrose  died  at 
Milan,  in  397,  in  the  attitude  and  the  act  of  prayer. 

There  were  many  poetical  legends  and  apologues  relating  to 
St.  Ambrose  current  in  the  middle  ages. 

It  is  related  that  an  obstinate  heretic  who  went  to  hear  him 
preach,  only  to  confute  and  mock  him,  beheld  an  angel  visi- 
ble at  his  side  and  prompting  the  words  he  uttered ;  on  seeing 
which,  the  scoffer  was  of  course  converted ;  a  subject  repre- 
sented in  his  church  at  Milan. 

One  day  Ambrose  went  to  the  prefect  Macedonius  to  entreat 
favor  for  a  poor  condemned  wretch ;  but  the  doors  were  shut 
against  him,  and  he  was  refused  access.  Then  he  said,  "  Thou, 
even  thou,  shalt  fly  to  the  church  for  refuge,  and  shalt  not 
enter!"  and  a  short  time  afterwards,  Macedonius,  being  pur- 
sued by  his  enemies,  fled  for  sanctuary  to  the  church;  but, 
though  the  doors  were  wide  open,  he  could  not  find  the 
entrance,  but  wandered  around  in  blind  perplexity  till  he  was 
slain.  Of  this  incident  I  have  seen  no  picture. 

On  another  occasion,  St.  Ambrose,  coming  to  the  house  of  a 
nobleman  of  Tuscany,  was  hospitably  received  ;  and  he  inquired 
concerning  the  state  of  his  host ;  the  nobleman  replied.  "  I 
have  never  known  adversity  ;  every  day  hath  seen  me  increas- 
ing in  fortune,  in  honors,  in  possessions.  I  have  a  numerous 
family  of  sons  and  daughters,  who  have  never  cost  me  a  pang 
of  sorrow ;  I  have  a  multitude  of  slaves,  to  whom  my  word  is 
law ;  and  I  have  never  suffered  either  sickness  or  pain." 
Then  Ambrose  rose  hastily  from  table,  and  said  to  his 
companions,  "  Arise  !  fly  from  this  roof,  ere  it  fall  upon  us  ; 
for  the  Lord  is  not  here  !  "  and  scarcely  had  he  left  the  house, 
when  an  earthquake  shook  the  ground,  and  swallowed  up  the 
palace  with  all  its  inhabitants.  I  have  seen  this  story  in  a 
miniature,  but  cannot  at  this  moment  refer  to  it. 

St.  Ambrose  falls  asleep,  or  into  a  trance,  while  celebrating 


ST.   AMBROSE  299 

mass,  and  sees  in  the  spirit  the  obsequies  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours :  the  sacristan  strikes  him  on  the  shoulder  to  wake  him. 
This  is  the  subject  of  a  very  old  mosaic  in  his  church  at 
Milan. 

When  St.  Ambrose  was  on  his  death-bed,  Christ  visited  him 
and  comforted  him ;  Honorat,  bishop  of  Vercelli,  was  then  in 
attendance  on  him,  and  having  gone  to  sleep,  an  angel  waked 
him,  saying,  "  Arise,  for  he  departs  in  this  hour ;  "  and  Honorat 
was  just  in  time  to  administer  the  sacrament  and  see  him 
expire.  Others  who  were  present  beheld  him  ascend  to 
heaven,  borne  in  the  arms  of  angels. 

Devotional  pictures  of  St.  Ambrose  alone  as  patron  saint  do 
not  often  occur.  In  general  he  wears  the  episcopal  pallium 
with  the  mitre  and  crosier  as  bishop :  the  beehive  is  some- 
times placed  at  his  feet ;  but  a  more  frequent  attribute  is  the 
knotted  scourge  with  three  thongs.  The  scourge  is  a  received 
emblem  of  the  castigation  of  sin :  in  the  hand  of  St.  Ambrose 
it  may  signify  the  penance  inflicted  on  the  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius ;  or,  as  others  interpret  it,  the  expulsion  of  the  Arians 
from  Italy  and  the  triumph  of  the  Trinitarians.  It  has 
always  this  meaning,  we  may  presume,  when  the  scourge  has 
three  knots  or  three  thongs.  I  have  seen  figures  of  St. 
Ambrose  holding  two  human  bones  in  his  hand.  When  this 
attribute  occurs  (as  in  a  picture  by  Vivarini,  Venice  Acad.), 
it  alludes  to  the  discovery  of  the  relics  of  Gervasius  and  Pro- 
tasius. 

Among  the  few  representations  of  St.  Ambrose  as  patron 
saint,  the  finest  beyond  all  comparison  is  that  which  adorns  his 
chapel  in  the  Frari  at  Venice,  painted  conjointly  by  B.  Viva- 
rini and  Basaiti  (A.  D.  1498).  He  is  seated  on  a  throne, 
raised  on  several  steps,  attired  in  his  episcopal  robes  and  mitre, 
and  bearing  the  triple  scourge  in  his  hand.  He  has  a  short 
gray  beard,  and  looks  straight  out  of  the  picture  with  an  ex- 
pression of  stern  power.  Nothing  here  of  the  benignity  and 
humility  of  the  Christian  teacher !  Around  his  throne  stands 
a  glorious  company  of  saints :  on  the  right,  St.  George  in 
complete  armor  ;  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  a  young  saint,  bear- 
ing a  sword  and  palm,  with  long  hair,  and  the  most  beautiful 
expression  of  mild  serene  faith,  whom  I  suppose  to  be  St.  Theo- 


300  THE   DOCTOKS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

dore ;  St.  Sebastian ;  and  another  figure  behind,  part  of  the 
head  only  seen.  On  the  left,  St.  Maurice,  armed ;  the  three 
Doctors,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome,  and  two 
other  saints  partly  seen  behind,  whose  personality  is  doubtful.1 
All  these  wait  round  St.  Ambrose,  as  guards  and  councillors 
round  a  sovereign ;  two  lovely  little  angels  sit  on  the  lower 
steps  of  the  throne  hymning  his  praise.  The  whole  picture  is 
wonderful  for  color,  depth,  and  expression,  and  shows  to  what 
a  pitch  of  excellence  the  Vivarini  family  had  attained  in  these 
characteristics  of  the  Venetian  school,  long  before  it  had  be- 
come a  school. 

Most  of  the  single  figures  of  St.  Ambrose  represent  him  in 
his  most  popular  character,  that  of  the  stern  adversary  of  the 
Arians.  I  remember  (in  the  Frari  at  Venice)  a  picture  in 
which  St.  Ambrose  in  his  episcopal  robes  is  mounted  on  a 
white  charger,  and  flourishing  on  high  his  triple  scourge.  The 
Arians  are  trampled  under  his  feet,  or  fly  before  him.  I  have 
seen  an  old  print,  in  which  he  is  represented  with  a  short 
gray  beard,  stern  countenance,  and  wearing  the  bishop's  mitre ; 
underneath  is  the  inscription,  "  Antiquis  ejus  imaginibus  Me- 
diolani  olim  depictis  ad  vivum  expressa ;  "  but  it  see"ms  cer- 
tain that  no  authentic  portrait  of  him  exists. 

His  church  at  Milan,  the  Basilica  of  Sant'  Ambrogio  Mag- 
giore,  one  of  the  oldest  and  -  most  interesting  churches  in 
Christendom,  was  founded  by  him  in  387,  and  dedicated  to  all 
the  Saints.  Though  rebuilt  in  the  ninth  century  and  restored 
in  the  seventeenth,  it  still  retains  the  form  of  the  primitive 
Christian  churches  (like  some  of  those  at  Rome  and  Ravenna), 
and  the  doors  of  cypress  wood  are  traditionally  regarded  as  the 
very  doors  which  St.  Ambrose  closed  against  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  brought  hither  from  the  ancient  cathedral.  "Within 
this  venerable  and  solemn  old  church  may  be  seen  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  and  best-preserved  specimens  of  Mediaeval 
Art :  it  is  the  golden  shrine  or  covering  of  the  high  altar, 
much  older  than  the  famous  pala  d'  oro  at  Venice ;  arfd  the 
work,  or  at.least  the  design,  of  one  man :  2  whereas  the  pala, 

1  [Thp   list   of   saints   as   enumerated   by  Crowe   and   Cavalcaselle   is  as 
follows  :    St.  George,  St.  Vitale,  St.   Gregory,  St.  Augustine,  St.   John   the 
Baptist,  St.  Gervasius,  St.  Protasius,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Jerome.] 

2  Wolvinus,  A.  D.  832.     "  His  name  seems  to  indicate  that  he  was  of  Teu- 
tonic race  —  a   circumstance  which  has   excited  much   controversy  amongst 
the  modern  Italian  antiquaries."     Murray's  Handbook. 


ST.   AMBROSE  301 

is  the  work  of  several  different  artists  at  different  periods. 
On  the  front  of  the  altar,  which  is  all  of  plates  of  gold, 
enamelled  and  set  with  precious  stones,  are  represented  in 
relief  scenes  from  the  life  of  our  Saviour  :  on  the  sides,  which 
are  of  silver-gilt,  angels,  archangels,  and  medallions  of  Milan- 
ese saints.  On  the  back,  also  of  silver-gilt,  we  have  the 
Avhole  life  of  St.  Ambrose,  in  a  series  of  small  compartments, 
most  curious  and  important  as  a  record  of  costume  and  man- 
ners, as  well  as  an  example  of  the  state  of  Art  at  that  time. 
I  have  never  seen  any  engraving  of  this  monument,  but  I 
examined  it  carefully.  In  the  centre  stand  the  Archangels 
Michael  and  Gabriel,  in  the  Byzantine  style ;  and  below  them, 
St.  Ambrose  blesses  the  donor,  Bishop  Angelbertus,  and  the 
goldsmith  Wolvinus.  Around,  in  twelve  compartments,  we 
have  the  principal  incidents  of  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose,  the  fig- 
ures being,  as  nearly  as  I  can  recollect,  about  six  inches  high. 

1.  Bees  swarm  round  his  head  as  he  lies  in  his  cradle.  2. 
He  is  appointed  prefect  of  the  Ligurian  provinces.  3.  He  is 
elected  bishop  of  Milan  in  375.  4.  He  is  baptized.  5.  He  is 
ordained.  6.  and  7.  He  sleeps,  and  beholds  in  a  vision  the 
obsequies  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  8.  He  preaches  in  the 
cathedral,  inspired  by  angels.  9.  He  heals  the  sick  and  lame. 
10.  He  is  visited  by  Christ.  11.  An  angel  wakes  the  bishop 
of  Vercelli,  and  sends  him  to  St.  Ambrose.  12.  Ambrose  dies, 
and  angels  bear  away  his  soul  to  heaven. 

I  was  surprised  not  to  find  in  his  church  what  we  consider 
as  the  principal  event  of  his  life  —  his  magnanimous  resist- 
ance to  the  Emperor  Theodosius.  In  fact,  the  grand  scene 
between  Ambrose  and  Theodosius  has  never  been  so  popular 
as  it  deserves  to  be ;  considered  merely  as  a  subject  of  paint- 
ing, it  is  full  of  splendid  picturesque  capabilities ;  for  group- 
ing, color,  contrast,  background,  all  that  could  be  desired.  In 
the  great  picture  by  Rubens  (Belvedere  Gallery,  Vienna),  the 
scene  is  the  porch  of  the  church.  On  the  left  the  e-mperor, 
surrounded  by  his  guards,  stands  irresolute,  and  in  a  supplica- 
tory attitude,  on  the  steps ;  on  the  right  and  above,  St.  Am- 
brose is  seen,  attended  by. the  ministering  priests,  and  stretches 
out  his  hand  to  repel  the  intruder.  There  is  a  print,  after 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  representing  Theodosius  on  his  knees  before 
the  relenting  prelate.  In  the  Louvre  is  a  small  picture,  by 
Subleyras,  of  the  reconciliation  of  Ambrose  and  Theodosius. 


302  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

In  our  National  Gallery  is  a  small  and  beautiful  copy,  by 
Vandyck,  of  the  great  picture  by  Rubens. 

As  joint  patrons  of  Milan,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Carlo  Bor- 
romeo  are  sometimes  represented  together,  but  only  in  late 
pictures. 

There  is  a  statue  of  St.  Ambrose,  by  Falconet  (Paris,  In- 
valides),  in  the  act  of  repelling  Theodosius,  which  is  men- 
tioned by  Diderot,  with  a  commentary  so  characteristic  of  the 
French  anti-religious  feeling  of  that  time,  —  a  feeling  as  nar- 
row and  one-sided  in  its  way  as  the  most  bigoted  puritanism,  — 
that  I  am  tempted  to  extract  it ;  only  premising,  that  if,  after 
the  slaughter  at  Ismael,  Catherine  of  Russia  had  been  placed 
under  the  ban  of  Christendom,  the  world  would  not  have  been 
the  worse  for  such  an  exertion  of  priestly  power. 

C'est  ce  fougueux  eveque  qui  osa  fermer  les  portes  de  Peglise  a 
Theodose,  et  a  qui  un  certain  soiiverain  de  par  le  monde  (Frederic 
of  Prussia)  qui  dans  la  guerre  passee  avoit  une  si  bonne  envie  de 
faire  un  tour  dans  la  rue  des  pretres,  et  une  certaine  souveraine 
(Catherine  of  Russia)  qui  vient  de  debarrasser  son  clerge  de  toute 
cette  richesse  inutile  qui  Pempechoit  d'etre  respectable,  auroient 
fait  couper  la  barbe  et  les  oreilles,  en  lui  disant :  "  Apprenez,  mon- 
sieur Pabbe,  que  le  temple  de  votre  Dieu  est  sur  mon  domaine,  et 
que  si  mon  predecesseur  vous  a  accorde  par  grace  les  trois  arpens 
de  terrain  qu'il  occupe,  je  puis  les  reprendre  et  vous  envoyer  porter 
vos  autels  et  votre  fanatisme  ailleurs.  Ce  lieu-ci  est  la  maison 
du  Pere  commun  des  hommes,  bons  ou  medians,  et  je  veux  entrer 
quand  il  me  plaira.  Je  ne  m'accuse  point  a  vous  ;  quand  je  daigne- 
rois  vous  consulter,  vous  n'en  savez  pas  assez  pour  me  conseiller 
sur  ma  conduite,  et  de  quel  front  vous  immiscez-vous  d'en  juger  ?  " 
Mais  le  plat  empereur  ne  parla  pas  ainsi,  et  1'e'veque  savoit  bien  a 
qui  il  avoit  a  faire.  Le  statuaire  nous  Pa  montre  dans  le  moment 
de  son  insolent  apostrophe. 

[This  is  that  fiery  bishop  who  dared  to  close  the  door  of  the 
church  against  Theodosius.  A  certain  sovereign  (Frederic  of 
Prussia)  who  in  the  recent  war  had  such  a  desire  to  take  a  turn  in  the 
priests'  quarters,  and  a  certain  empress  (Catherine  of  Russia)  who 
has  just  relieved  her  clergy  of  all  the  useless  riches  which  prevented 
their  being  respectable,  would  have  cut  his  ears  and  beard,  saying 
to  him:  "Learn,  your  Reverence,  that  the  temple  of  your  God  is 
in  my  domains,  and  that  if  my  predecessor  has  given  you  the  favor 
of  the  three  acres  it  covers,  I  can  take  them  back  and  make 
you  take  elsewhere  your  altars  and  your  fanaticism.  This  place  is 


ST.  AMBROSE  AND  EMPEROR  THEODOS1US  (RUBENS) 


ST.   AUGUSTINE  303 

the  home  of  the  common  Father  of  men,  good  or  bad,  and  I  will 
enter  it  when  I  please.  I  am  not  accountable  to  you ;  even  if  I 
should  deign  to  consult  you,  you  do  not  know  enough  to  advise  me 
upon  my  conduct,  and  what  impudence  to  take  it  upon  yourself  to 
judge  it."  But  the  cringing  emperor  did  not  talk  in  this  wise,  and 
the  bishop  knew  with  whom  he  had  to  deal.  The  statue  shows 
him  in  the  moment  of  his  insolent  address.] 

In  Diderot's  criticisms  on  Art,  which  are  often  quoted  even 
now,  there  is  in  general  a  far  better  taste  than  prevailed  in 
his  time,  and  much  good  sense ;  but  a  low  tone  of  sentiment 
when  he  had  to  deal  with  imaginative  or  religious  Art,  and 
an  intolerable  coarseness  —  "  most  mischievous  foul  sin  in  chid- 
ing sin." 

ST.  AUGUSTINE 

St.  Austin.     Lat.  Sanctus  Augustinus.     Ital.  Sant'  Agostina.     Fr. 
St.  Augustin.     (Aug.  28,  A.  D.  430.) 

St.  Augustine,  the  third  of  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  was 
born  at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  in  354.  His  father  was  a  hea- 
then ;  his  mother,  Monica,  a  Christian.  Endowed  with  splen- 
did talents,  a  vivid  imagination,  and  strong  passions,  Augustine 
passed  his  restless  youth  in  dissipated  pleasures,  in  desultory 
studies,  changing  from  one  faith  to  another,  dissatisfied  with 
himself  and  unsettled  in  mind.  His  mother,  Monica,  wept 
and  prayed  for  him,  and,  in  the  extremity  of  her  anguish,  « 
repaired  to  the  bishop  of  Carthage.  After  listening  to  her 
sorrows,  he  dismissed  her  with  these  words :  "  Go  in  peace ; 
the  son  of  so  many  tears  will  not  perish  !  "  Augustine  soon 
afterwards  went  to  Eome,  where  he  gained  fame  and  riches  by 
his  eloquence  at  the  bar  ;  but  he  was  still  unhappy  and  rest- 
less, nowhere  finding  peace  either  in  labor  or  in  pleasure. 
From  Rome  he  went  to  Milan  ;  there,  after  listening  for  some 
•time  to  the  preaching  of  Ambrose,  he  was,  after  many  strug- 
gles, converted  to  the  faith,  and  was  baptized  by  the  bishop  of 
Milan,  in  presence  of  his  mother,  Monica.  On  this  occasion 
was  composed  the  hymn  called  the  '•'  Te  Deum,"  still  in  use 
in  our  Church,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine  reciting  the 
verses  alternately  as  they  advanced  to  the 'altar.  Augustine, 
after  some  time  spent  in  study,  was  ordained  priest,  and  then 
bishop  of  Hippo,  a  small  town  and  territory  not  far  from  Car- 


304          THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH 

thage.  Once  installed  in  his  bishopric,  he  ever  afterwards 
refused  to  leave  the  flock  intrusted  to  his  care,  or  to  accept  of 
any  higher  dignity.  His  life  was  passed  in  the  practice  of 
every  virtue  :  all  that  he  possessed  was  spent  in  hospitality 
and  charity,  and  his  time  was  devoted  to  the  instruction  of 
his  flock,  either  by  preaching  or  writing.  In  430,  after  he 
had  presided  over  his  diocese  for  thirty-five  years,  the  city  of 
Hippo  was  besieged  by  the  Vandals  ;  in  the  midst  of  the 
horrors  that  ensued,  Augustine  refused  to  leave  his  people, 
and  died  during  the  siege,  being  then  in  his  seventy-sixth 
year.  It  is  said  that  his  remains  were  afterwards  removed 
from  Africa  to  Pavia,  by  Luitprand,  king  of  the  Lombards. 
His  writings  in  defence  of  Christianity  are  numerous  and  cele- 
brated ;  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  patron  saint  of  theologians 
and  learned  men. 

Of  his  glorious  tomb,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Pavia,  I  can  only 
say  that  its  beauty  as  a  work  of  art  astonished  me.  I  had 
not  been  prepared  for  anything  so  rich,  so  elegant  in  taste,  and 
so  elaborate  in  .invention.  It  is  of  the  finest  florid  Gothic, 
worked  in  white  marble,  scarcely  discolored  by  time.  Augus- 
tine lies  upon  a  bier,  and  angels  of  exquisite  grace  are  folding 
his  shroud  around  him.  The  basso-relievos  represent  the 
events  of  his  life  ;  the  statues  of  the  evangelists,  apostles,  and 
other  saints  connected  with  the  history  of  the  Church,  are  full 
of  dignity  and  character.  It  comprises  in  all  two  hundred 
'and  ninety  figures.  This  magnificent  shrine  is  attributed  by 
Cicognara  to  the  Jacobelli  of  Venice,  and  by  Vasari  to  the 
two  brothers  Agostino  and  Agnolo  of  Siena  ;  but  he  does  not 
speak  with  certainty,  and  the  date  1362  seems  to  justify  the 
supposition  of  Cicognara,  the  Sienese  brothers  being  then 
eighty  or  ninety  years  old. 

Single  figures  of  St.  Augustine  are  not  common  ;  and  when 
grouped  with  others  in  devotional  pictures,  it  is  not  easy  to 
distinguish  him  from  other  bishops  ;  for  his  proper  attribute, 
the  heart  flaming  or  transpierced,  to  express  the  ardor  of  his 
piety  or  the  poignancy  of  his  repentance,  is  very  seldom  intro- 
duced :  but  when  a  bishop  is  standing  with  a  book  in  his  hand, 
or  a  pen,  accompanied  by  St.  Jerome,  and  with  no  particular 
attribute,  we  may  suppose  it  to  be  St.  Augustine ;  and  when 
the  title  of  one  of  his  famous  writings  is  inscribed  on  the 
book,  it  of  course  fixes  the  identity  beyond  a  doubt. 


ST.    AUGUSTINE 


305 


1.  B.  Vivarini.      St. 
Augustine  seated  on  a 
throne,  as  patron  saint, 
mitred  and  robed ;  alone, 
stern,  and  majestic.  (SS. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Ven- 
ice.) 

2.  Dosso  Dossi.    St. 
Augustine    throned    as 
patron,  attended  by  two 
angels  ;  he  looks  like  a 
jovial  patriarch.  (Brera, 
Milan.) 

3.  [Attributed    to] 
F.  Filippo  Lippi.1     St. 
Augustine    writing    in 
his  chamber ;    no    em- 
blem, no  mitre  ;  yet  the 
personalite  so  marked, 
that  one  could  not  mis- 
take him  either  for  Am- 
brose or  Jerome.     (Uf- 
fizi,  Florence.) 

4.  Andrea  del  Sarto. 
Agostini. 


St.  Augustine  (attributed  to  Filippo  Lippi) 


[The  "Dispute."]  Painted  for  the 
St.  Augustine  as  doctor ;  before  him  stand  St. 
Dominick  and  St.  Peter  Martyr ;  beside  him  St.  Laurence, 
listening;  in  front  kneel  St.  Sebastian  arid  Mary  Magdalene. 
(Pitti,  Florence.) 

5.  V.   Carpaccio.     St.   Augustine  standing ;  2  a  fine,  stern, 
majestic   figure ;     he  holds   his   book    and    scourge.      (Brera, 
Milan.) 

6.  Paris  Bordone.     The  Virgin  and  Child  enthroned  ;  the 
Virgin  places  on  the  head  of  St.  Augustine,  who  kneels  before 
her,  the  jewelled  mitre.      (Berlin.) 

7.  Florigerio.     St.   Augustine,  as   bishop,  and  St.  Monica, 
veiled,    stand    on    each    side   of    the    Madonna.       (Academy, 
Venice.) 

1  [Also  attributed  to  Botticelli.] 

2  [The  1892  Brera  catalogue  contains  no  picture  of  St.  Augustine  attributed 
to  Dosso  Dossi  or  to  V.  Carpaccio.] 


306  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

As  a  series  of  subjects,  the  history  of  St.  Augustine  is  not 
commonly  met  with ;  yet  certain  events  in  his  life  are  of  very 
frequent  occurrence. 

I  shall  begin  with  the  earliest. 

1.  Monica  brings  her   son  to  school ;  the  master  receives 
him ;    the   scholars  are  sitting  in  a  row  conning  their  horn 
books.     The  names  of  Monica  and  Augustine  are  inscribed  in 
the  glories  round  their  heads.     This  is  a  very  curious  little 
oval    picture  of    the    early  part  of    the    fourteenth    century. 
(Vatican,  Christian  Museum.) 

Benozzo  Gozzoli  has  painted  the  same  subject  in  a  large 
fresco  in  the  church  of  San  Gemignano  at  Volterra  (A.  D. 
1460).  Monica  presents  her  son  to  the  schoolmaster,  who 
caresses  him  ;  in  the  background  a  little  boy  is  being  whipped, 
precisely  in  the  same  attitude  in  which  correction  is  admin- 
istered to  this  day  in  some  of  our  schools. 

2.  St.   Augustine  under  the  fig-tree  meditating,  with  the 
inscription,  "  Dolores  animse  salutem  parturientes  ;  "  and  the 
same  subject  varied,  with  the  inscription,  Tolle,  lege.     He  tells 
us  in  his  Confessions,  that  while  still  unconverted  and  in  deep 
communion   with  his  friend  Alypius  on  the   subject  of  the 
Scriptures,   the  contest   within   his  mind   was    such    that   he 
rushed  from  the  presence   of  his   friend   and   threw  himself 
down  beneath  a  fig-tree,  pouring  forth  torrents  of  repentant 
tears ;  and  he  heard  a  voice,  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  child, 
repeating  several  times,  "  Tolle,  lege/'  "  Take  and  read  ;  "  and 
returning  to  the  place  where  he  had  left  his  friend,  and  taking 
up  the  sacred  volume,  he  opened  it  at  the  verse  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  "  Not  in  rioting  and  drunkenness,  not 
in  chambering  and  wantonness,  not  in  strife  and  envying ;  but 
put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  provision  for 
the  flesh."     Considering  that  this  was  the  voice   of  God,  he 
took  up  the  religious  profession,  to  the  great  joy  of  his  mother 
and  his  friend. 

3.  C.  Procaccino.      The  Baptism  of  St.  Augustine  in  the 
presence  of  St.  Monica.     This  is  a  common  subject  in  chapels 
dedicated  to  St.  Augustine  or  St.  Monica.      (Cremona.) 

4.  As  the  supposed   founder  of  one  of  the  four  great  reli- 
gious communities,  St.  Augustine  is  sometimes   represented  as 
giving  the   rules  to  his  Order :   or  in  the  act  of  writing   them 
while   his   monks   stand   around,  as  in  a   picture   by  Carletto 


ST.   AUGUSTINE  307 

Cagliari  (Belvedere,  Vienna)  :  both  are  common  subjects  in 
the  houses  of  the  Augustine  friars.  The  habit  is  black.  (Vide 
Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders.) 

5.  St.  Augustine  dispensing  alms,  generally  in  a  black  habit, 
and  with  a  bishop's  mitre  on  his  head. 

6.  St.   Augustine,   washing  the  feet  of  the  pilgrims,  sees 
Christ  descend  from  above  to  have  his  feet  washed  with  the 
rest ;  a  large  picture  in  the  Bologna  Academy  by  Desubleo,"  a 
painter  whose  works,  with  this  one  exception,  are  unknown  to 
me.     The  saint  wears  the  black  habit  of  an  Augustine  friar, 
and  is  attended  by  a   monk  with  a   napkin  in  his  hand.     I 
found  the  same  subject  in  the  Louvre,  in  a  Spanish  picture 
of  the  seventeenth  century;  above  is  seen  a  church  (like  the 
Pantheon)   in  a  glory,  and   Christ  is   supposed  to  utter  the 
words,  "Tibi  commendo  Ecclesiam   meam."     I  believe  this 
picture  was  afterwards  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Dennistoun,  of 
Dennistoun.     Mr.  Stirling  mentions  it  as  a  fine  specimen  of 
Murillo's  second  style. 

7.  St.  Augustine,  borne  aloft  by  angels  in  an  ecstatic  vision, 
beholds    Christ  in  the    opening  heavens    above,   St.   Monica 
kneeling  below.     This  fine  picture,  by  Vandyck,  is  or  was  in 
the  gallery  of  Lord  Methuen,  at  Corsham,1  and  at  Madrid  there 
is  another  example,  by  Murillo :  St.  Augustine  kneeling  in  an 
ecstasy  sees  a  celestial  vision ;  on  one  hand  the  Saviour  cruci- 
fied, on  the  other  the  Virgin  and  angels. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  famous  subject  called,  in  general, 
8.  "The Vision  of  St.  Augustine,"  which  represents  a  dream 
or  vision  related  by  himself.  He  tells  us  that  while  busied  in 
writing  his  discourse  on  the  Trinity,  he  wandered  along  the 
seashore  lost  in  meditation.  Suddenly  he  beheld  a  child  who, 
having  dug  a  hole  in  the  sand,  appeared  to  be  bringing  water 
from  the  sea  to  fill  it.  Augustine  inquired  what  Avas  the 
object  of  his  task  ?  He  replied,  that  he  intended  to  empty 
into  this  cavity  all  the  waters  of  the  great  deep.  "  Impossi- 
ble !  "  exclaimed  Augustine.  "  Not  more  impossible,"  replied 
the  child,  "  than  for  thee,  0  Augustine !  to  explain  the  mys- 
tery on  which  thou  art  now  meditating." 

No  subject  from  the  history  of  St.  Augustine  has  been  so 

1  [A  picture  of  St.  Augustine  in  Ecstasy,  by  Vandyck,  is  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Augustine,  at  Antwerp.] 


308 


THE   DOCTORS   OF  THE   CHURCH 


often  treated,  yet  I  do  not  remember  any  very  early  example. 
It  was  adopted  as  a  favorite  theme  when  Art  became  rather 
theological  than  religious,  and  more  intent  on  illustrating  the 
dogmas  of  churchmen  than  the  teaching  of  Christ.  During 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  we  find  it  everywhere, 
and  treated  in  every  variety  of  style  ;  but  the  motif  does  not 
vary,  and  the  same  fault  prevails  too  generally,  of  giving  us  a 


Vision  of  St.  Augustine  (Garofalo) 

material  fact,  rather  than  a  spiritual  vision  or  revelation.  Au- 
gustine, arrayed  in  his  black  habit  or  his  episcopal  robes, 
stands  on  the  seashore,  gazing  with  an  astonished  air  on  the 
Infant  Christ,  who  pauses,  and  looks  up  from  his  task,  hold- 
ing a  bowl,  a  cup,  a  ladle,  or  a  shell  in  his  hand.  Thus  we 
have  it  in  Murillo's  picture  —  the  most  beautiful  example  I 
have  seen  :  the  child  is  heavenly,  bxit  not  visionary,  "  palpable 
to  feeling  as  to  sense."  [Collection  of  Joseph  T.  Mills,  Esq., 
Rugby,  Warwickshire.] 

In  Garofalo's  picture  of  this  subject,  now  in  our  National 
Gallery,  Augustine  is  seated  on  a  rock  by  the  margin  of  the 
sea,  habited  in  his  episcopal  robes,  and  with  his  books  and 
writing  implements  near  him  ;  and  while  he  gazes  on  the  mys- 
terious child,  the  Virgin  appears  amid  a  choir  of  angels  above  : 
behind  Augustine  stands  St.  Catherine,  the  patron  saint  of 


ST.   AUGUSTINE  309 

theologians  and  scholars  :  the  little  red  figure  in  the  back- 
ground represents  St.  Stephen,  whose  life  and  actions  are  elo- 
quently set  forth  in  the  homilies  of  St.  Augustine  :  the  intro- 
duction of  St.  Catherine,  St.  Stephen,  and  the  whole  court  of 
heaven,  gives  the  picture  a  visionary  character.  Rubens  has 
painted  this  subject  with  all  his  powerful  reality  :  here  Augus- 
tine wears  the  black  habit  of  his  Order.  Vandyck  in  his  large 
grand  picture  has  introduced  St.  Monica  kneeling,  thus  giving 
at  once  the  devotional  or  visionary  character.  (Once  in  Lord 
Methuen's  Gallery  at  Corsham.)  Albert  Dtirer  has  designed 
and  engraved  the  same  subject.  The  most  singular  treatment 
is  the  classical  composition  of  Raphael,  in  one  of  the  small 
chiaro-scuro  pictures  placed  significantly  under  the  "  Dispute  of 
the  Sacrament."  St.  Augustine  is  in  a  Roman  dress,  bare- 
headed, and  on  horseback ;  his  horse  starts  and  rears  at  the 
sight  of  the  miraculous  child. 

There  is  something  at  once  picturesque  and  mystical  in  this 
subject,  which  has  rendered  it  a  favorite  with  artists  and  theo- 
logians ;  yet  there  is  always,  at  least  in  every  instance  I  can 
recollect,  something  prosaic  and  literal  in  the  treatment  which 
spoils  the  poetry  of  the  conception. 

9.  "  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Stephen  bury  Count  Orgaz  "  — 
the  masterpiece  of  Domenico  el  Greco,  once  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Toledo,  now  in  the  Madrid  Gallery.  This  Conde  de  Orgaz, 
as  Mr.  Ford  tells  us  in  his  Handbook,  lived  in  1312,  and  had 
repaired  a  church  in  his  lifetime,  and  therefore  St.  Stephen 
and  St.  Augustine  came  down  from  heaven  to  lay  him  in  his 
tomb,  in  presence  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  all  the  court  of 
heaven.  "  The  black  and  gold  armor  of  the  dead  Count  is 
equal  to  Titian ;  the  red  brocades  and  copes  of  the  saints  are 
admirable  ;  less  good  are  the  Virgin  and  celestial  groups."  I 
have  before  mentioned  the  reason  why  St.  Aiigustine  and  St. 
Stephen  *re  often  represented  in  companionship. 

St.  Monica  is  often  introduced  into  pictures  of  her  son, 
where  she  has,  of  course,  the  secondai'y  place  ;  her  dress  is 
usually  a  black  robe,  and  a  veil  or  coif,  white  or  gray,  resem- 
bling that  of  a  nun  or  a  widow.  I  have  met  with  but  one 
picture  where  she  is  supreme ;  it  is  in  the  Carmine  at  Flor- 
ence. St.  Monica  is  seated  on  a  throne  and  attended  by  twelve 
holy  women  or  female  saints,  six  on  each  side.  The  very  dark 
situation  of  this  picture  prevented  me  from  distinguishing  in- 


310 


THE   DOCTORS   OF  THE   CHURCH 


dividually  the  saints  around  her,  but  Monica  herself  as  well 
as  the  other  figures  have  that  grandiose  air  which  belongs  to 
the  painter  Filippo  Lippi.1 

I  saw  in  the  atelier  of  the,  painter  Ary  Schefier,  in  1845, 
an  admirable  picture  of  St.  Augustine  and  his  mother  Monica. 
The  two  figures,  not  quite  full  length,  are  seated ;  she  holds 


St.  Augustine  and  St.  Monica  (Ary  Scheffer) 

his  hand  in  both  hers,  looking  up  to  heaven  with  an  expres- 
sion of  enthusiastic  undoubting  faith,  —  "  the  son  of  so  many 
tears  cannot  be  cast  away  !  "  He  also  is  looking  up  with  an 
ardent,  eager,  but  anxious,  doubtful  expression,  which  seems  to 
say,  "Help  thou  my  unbelief!"  For  profound  and  truthful 
feeling  and  significance,  I  know  few  things  in  the  compass  of 

1  [The  picture  described  is  probably  the  fresco  in  the  church  of  Santo 
Spirito,  Florence,  and  is  in  the  style  of  the  Pollaiuoli.  Vide  Crowe  and 
Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting  in  Jtaly,  vol.  ii.  p.  397-] 


ST.   GREGORY  311 

modern  Art  that  can  be  compared  to  this  picture.      [In  the 
National  Gallery,  London.     Acquired  by  bequest  in  1885.] 

ST.  GREGORY 

Lot.  Sanctus  Gregorius  Magnus.  Ital.  San  Gregorio  Magno  or 
Papa.  Fr.  St.  Gregoire.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Gregor.  (March  12, 
A.  D.  604.) 

The  fourth  Doctor  of  the  Latin  Church,  St.  Gregory,  styled, 
and  not  without  reason,  Gregory  the  Great,  was  one  of  those 
extraordinary  men  whose  influence  is  not  only  felt  in  their 
own  time,  but  through  long  succeeding  ages.  The  events  of 
his  troubled  and  splendid  pontificate  belong  to  history ;  and  I 
shall  merely  throw  together  here  such  particulars  of  his  life 
and  character  as  may  serve  to  render  the  multiplied  represen- 
tations of  him  both  intelligible  and  interesting,  He  was  born 
at  Rome  in  the  year  540.  His  father,  Gordian,  was  of  sena- 
torial rank :  his  mother,  Sylvia,  who,  in  the  history  of  St. 
Gregory,  is  almost  as  important  as  St.  Monica  in  the  story  of 
St.  Augustine,  was  a  woman  of  rare  endowments,  and,  during 
his  childish  years,  the  watchful  instructress  of  her  son.  It  is 
recorded  that  when  he  was  still  an  infant  she  was  favored  by 
a  vision  of  St.  Anthony,  in  which  he  promised  to  her  son  the 
supreme  dignity  of  the  tiara.  Gregory,  however,  commenced 
his  career  in  life  as  a  lawyer,  and  exercised  during  twelve 
years  the  office  of  praetor  or  chief  magistrate  of  his  native  city  ; 
yet,  while  apparently  engrossed  by  secular  affairs,  he  became 
deeply  imbued  with  the  religious  enthusiasm  which  was  char- 
acteristic of  his  time  and  hereditary  in  his  family.  Imme- 
diately on  the  death  of  his  father  he  devoted  all  the  wealth 
he  had  inherited  to  pious  and  charitable  purposes,  converted 
his  paternal  home  on  the  Celian  Hill  into  a  monastery  and 
hospital  for  the  poor,  which  he  dedicated  to  St.  Andrew ; 
then,  retiring  to  a  little  cell  within  it,  he  took  the  habit  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  and  gave  up  all  his  time  to  study  and  prep- 
aration for  the  duties  to  which  he  had  devoted  himself.  On 
the  occasion  of  a  terrific  plague  which  almost  depopulated 
Eome,  he  fearlessly  undertook  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick. 
Pope  Pelagius  having  died  at  this  time,  the  people  with  one 
voice  called  upon  Gregory  to  succeed  him  ;  but  he  shrank  from 
the  high  office,  and  wrote  to  the  Emperor  Maurice,  entreating 


312  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

him  not  to  ratify  the  choice  of  the  people.  The  emperor 
sent  an  edic.t  confirming  his  election,  and  thereupon  Gregory 
fled  from  Rome,  and  hid  himself  in  a  cave.  Those  who  went 
in  search  of  him  were  directed  to  the  place  of  his  concealment 
by  a  celestial  light,  and  the  fugitive  was  discovered  and  brought 
back  to  Rome. 

No  sooner  had  he  assumed  the  tiara,  thus  forced  upon  him 
against  his  will,  than  he  showed  himself  in  all  respects  worthy 
of  his  elevation.  While  he  asserted  the  dignity  of  his  sta- 
tion, he  was  distinguished  by  his  personal  humility :  he  was 
the  first  pope  who  took  the  title  of  "  Servant  of  the  Servants 
of  God ;  "  he  abolished  slavery  throughout  Christendom  on 
religious  grounds  ;  though  enthusiastic  in  making  converts,  he 
set  himself  against  persecution  ;  arid  when  the  Jews  of  Sar- 
dinia appealed  to  him,  he  commanded  that  the  synagogues 
which  had  been  taken  from  them,  and  converted  into  churches, 
should  be  restored.  He  was  the  first  who  sent  missionaries  to 
preach  the  Gospel  in  England,  roused  to  pity  by  the  sight  of 
some  British  captives  exposed  for  sale  in  the  market  at  Rome. 
Shocked  at  the  idea  of  an  eternity  of  vengeance  and  torment, 
if  he  did  not  originate  the  belief  in  purgatory,  he  was  at  least 
the  first  who  preached  it  publicly,  and  made  it  an  article  of 
faith.  In  his  hatred  of  war,  of  persecution,  of  slavery,  he 
stepped  not  only  in  advance  of  his  own  time,  but  of  ours.  He 
instituted  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  one  of  the  boldest  strokes 
of  ecclesiastical  power ;  he  reformed  the  services  of  the  Church ; 
defined  the  model  of  the  Roman  liturgy,  such  as  it  has  ever 
since  remained  —  the  offices  of  the  priests,  the  variety  and 
change  of  the  sacerdotal  garments ;  he  arranged  the  music  of 
the  chants,  and  he  himself  trained  the  choristers.  "  Experi- 
ence," says  Gibbon,  "  had  shown  him  the  efficacy  of  these 
solemn  and  pompous  rites  to  soothe  the  distress,  to  confirm 
the  faith,  to  mitigate  the  fierceness,  and  to  dispel  the  dark  en- 
thusiasm of  the  vulgar,  and  he  readily  forgave  their  tendency 
to  promote  the  reign  of  priesthood  and  superstition."  If,  at 
a  period  when  credulity  and  ignorance  were  universal,  he 
showed  himself  in  some  instances  credulous  and  ignorant,  it 
seems  hardly  a  reproach  to  one  in  other  respects  so  good  and 
so  great. 

His  charity  was  boundless,  and  his  vigilance  indefatigable  : 
he  considered  himself  responsible  for  every  sheep  of  the  flock 


ST.   GKEGORY  313 

intrusted  to  him  ;  and  when  a  beggar  died  of  hunger  in  the 
streets  of  Rome,  he  laid  himself  under  a  sentence  of  penance 
and  excommunication,  and  interdicted  himself  for  several  days 
from  the  exercise  of  his  sacerdotal  functions. 

Such  was  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  the  last  pope  who  was 
canonized :  celestial  honors  and  worldly  titles  have  often  heen 
worse  —  seldom  so  well  —  bestowed. 

During  the  last  two  years  of  his  life,  his  health,  early 
impaired  by  fasts  and  vigils,  failed  entirely,  and  he  was  unable 
to  rise  from  his  couch.  He  died  in  604,  in  the  fourteenth 
year  of  his  pontificate.  They  still  preserve,  in  the  church  of 
the  Lateran  at  Rome,  his  bed,  and  the  little  scourge  with 
which  he  was  wont  to  keep  the  choristers  in  order. 

The  monastery  of  St.  Andrew,  which  he  founded  on  the 
Celian  Hill,  is  now  the  church  of  San  Gregorio.  To  stand 
on  the  summit  of  the  majestic  flight  of  steps  which  leads  to 
the  portal,  and  look  across  to  the  ruined  palace  of  the  Caesars, 
makes  the  mind  giddy  with  the  rush  of  thoughts.  There, 
before  us,  the  Palatine  Hill  —  pagan  Rome  in  dust ;  here,  the 
little  cell,  a  few  feet  square,  where  slept  in  sackcloth  the  man 
who  gave  the  last  blow  to  the  power  of  the  Caesars,  and  first 
set  his  foot  as  sovereign  on  the  cradle  and  capital  of  their 
greatness. 

St.  Gregory  was  in  person  tall  and  corpulent,  and  of  a  dark 
complexion,  Avith  black  hair  and  very  little  beard.  He  speaks 
in  one  of  his  epistles  of  his  large  size,  contrasted  with  his  weak- 
ness and  painful  infirmities.  He  presented  to  the  monastery 
of  St.  Andrew  his  own  portrait,  and  those  of  his  father  and 
his  mother,  St.  Sylvia  :  they  were  still  in  existence  three  hun- 
dred years  after  his  death,  and  the  portrait  of  Gregory  proba- 
bly furnished  that  particular  type  of  physiognomy  which  we 
trace  in  all  the  best  representations  of  him,  in  which  he  ap- 
pears of  a  tall,  large,  and  dignified  person,  with  a  broad  full 
face,  black  hair  and  eyebrows,  and  little  or  no  beard. 

As  he  was,  next  to  St.  Jerome,  the  most  popular  of  the 
Four  Doctors,  single  figures  of  him  abound.  They  are  vari- 
ously treated :  in  general,  he  bears  the  tiara  as  pope,  and  the 
crosier  with  the  double  cross,  in  common  with  other  papal 
saints ;  but  his  peculiar  attribute  is  the  dove,  which  in  the 
old  pictures  is  always  close  to  his  ear.  He  is  often  seated  on 


314  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

a  throne  in  the  pontifical  robes,  wearing  the  tiara :  one  hand 
raised  in  benediction  ;  in  the  other  a  book,  which  represents 
his  homilies  and  other  famous  works  attributed  to  him :  the 
dove  either  rests  on  his  shoulder  or  is  hovering  over  his  head. 
He  is  thus  represented  in  the  fine  statue,  designed,  as  it  is  said, 
by  M.  Angelo,  and  executed  by  Cordieri,  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Barbara,  in  San  Gregorio,  Borne ;  and  in  the  picture  over  the 
altar-piece  of  his  chapel,  to  the  right  of  the  high  altar.  In 
the  Salviati  Chapel,  on  the  left,  is  the  "  St.  Gregory  in  prayer," 
by  Annibal  Caracci.  He  is  seen  in  front  bareheaded,  but 
arrayed  in  the  pontifical  habit,  kneeling  on  a  cushion,  his  hands 
outspread  and  uplifted  ;  the  dove  descends  from  on  high  ;  the 
tiara  is  at  his  feet,  and  eight  angels  hover  around :  —  a  grand, 
finely-colored,  but,  in  sentiment,  rather  cold  and  mannered 
picture.  There  is  a  duplicate  in  the  Bridgewater  Gallery. 

By  Guercino,  St.  Gregory  seated  on  a  throne,  looking  up- 
wards, his  hand  on  an  open  book,  in  act  to  turn  the  leaves ; 
the  dove  hovers  at  his  shoulder :  to  the  left  stands  St.  Francis 
Xavier ;  on  the  right,  and  more  in  front,  St.  Ignatius  Loyola. 
Behind  St.  Gregory  is  an  angel  playing  on  the  viol,  in  allusion 
to  his  love  and  patronage  of  sacred  music ;  in  front  an  infant 
angel  holds  the  tiara.  The  type  usually  adopted  in  figures  of 
St.  Gregory  is  here  exaggerated  into  coarseness,  and  the  picture 
altogether  appears  to  me  more  remarkable  for  Guercino's  faults 
than  for  his  beauties.  (Sutherland  Gallery.) 

Several  of  the  legends  connected  with  the  history  of  St. 
Gregory  are  of  singular  interest  and  beauty,  and  have  afforded 
a  number  of  picturesque  themes  for  Art :  they  appear  to  have 
arisen  out  of  his  exceeding  popularity.  They  are  all  expres- 
sive of  the  veneration  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  people ; 
of  the  deep  impression  left  on  their  minds  by  his  eloquence, 
his  sanctity,  his  charity  ;  and  of  the  authority  imputed  to  his 
numerous  writings,  which  were  commonly  said  to  have  been 
dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

1.  John  the  deacon,  his  secretary,  who  has  left  a  full  ac- 
count of  his  life,  declares  that  he  beheld  the  Holy  Ghost  in 
the  form  of  a  dove  perched  upon  his  shoulder  while  he  was 
writing  or  dictating  his  famous  homilies.  This  vision,  or 
rather  figure  of  speech,  has  been  interpreted  as  a  fact  by  the 


ST.   GREGOKY  315 

early  painters.  Thus,  in  a  quaint  old  picture  in  the  Bologna 
Gallery,  we  have  St.  Gregory  seated  on  a  throne  writing,  the 
celestial  dove  at  his  ear.  A  little  behind  is  seen  John  the 
deacon,  drawing  aside  the  curtain,  and  looking  into  the  room 
at  his  patron  with  an  expression  of  the  most  naive  astonish- 
ment.1 

2.  The  Archangel  Michael,   on  the  cessation  of  the  pesti- 
lence, sheathes  his  sword  on  the  summit  of  the  Mole  of  Ha- 
drian.    I   have  never  seen  even  a   tolerable  picture  of  this 
magnificent   subject.     There  is   a  picture  in   the  Vatican,  in 
which  Gregory  and  a  procession  of  priests  are  singing  litanies, 
and  in  the  distance  a   little  Mola   di  Adriano,  with  a   little 
angel  on  the  summit ;   curious,  but  without  merit  of  any  kind. 

3.  The   Supper  of  St.   Gregory.     It  is  related  that  when 
Gregory  was  only  a  monk,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew,  a 
beggar  presented   himself  at  the   gate,   and   requested  alms : 
being  relieved,  he  came  again  and  again,  and  at  length  nothing 
was  left  for  the  charitable  saint  to  bestow  but  the  silver  por- 
ringer in  which  his  mother,  Sylvia,  had  sent  him  si  potage  ; 
and  he  commanded  that  this  should  be  given  to  the  mendicant. 
It  was  his  custom,  when  he  became  pope,  to  entertain  every 
evening  at  his  own  table  twelve  poor  men,  in  remembrance  of 
the  number  of  our  Lord's  apostles.     One  night,  as  he  sat  at 
supper  with  his  guests,  he  saw,  to  his  surprise,  not  twelve,  but 
thirteen  seated  at  his  table.     And  he   called  to  his  steward, 
and  said  to  him,  "  Did  I  not  command  thee  to  invite  twelve  ? 
and  behold,  there  are  thirteen  !  "     And  the  steward  told  them 
over,   and    replied,    "  Holy   Father,   there  are    surely  twelve 
only  !  "  and  Gregory  held  his  peace ;  and  after  the   meal,  he 
called  forth  the  unbidden  guest,  and  asked  him,  "  Who  art 
thou  ?  "     And  he  replied,  "  I  am  the  poor  man  whom  thou 
didst  formerly  relieve  ;  but  my   name   is  the  Wonderful,  and 
through  me  thou  shalt  obtain  whatever  thou  shalt  ask  of  God." 
Then  Gregory  knew  that  he   had   entertained  an  angel  (or, 
according  to  another  version  of  the  story,  our  Lord  Himself). 
This  legend  has  been  a  frequent  subject  in  painting,  under 
the  title  of  "  The  Supper  of  St.  Gregory."     In  the  fresco  in 
his  church  at  Home  [Viviani],  it  is  a  winged  angel  who  ap- 
pears at  the   supper-table.     In  the  fresco  of  Paul  Veronese, 

l  [The  editor  is  unable  to  identify  this  picture  in  the  catalogue  of  the 
Bologna  Gallery.] 


316  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

one  of  his  famous  banquet-scenes,  the  stranger  seated  at  the 
table  is  the  Saviour  habited  as  a  pilgrim.  (Vicenza.  S.  Maria 
del  Monte.)  In  the  picture  painted  by  Vasari,  his  master- 
piece, now  in  the  Bologna  Gallery,  he  has  introduced  a  great 
number  of  figures  and  portraits  of  distinguished  personages 
of  his  own  time,  St.  Gregory  being  represented  under  the  like- 
ness of  Clement  VII.  The  unbidden  guest,  or  angel,  bears 
the  features  of  the  Saviour. 

This  is  one  of  many  beautiful  mythic  legends,  founded  on 
the  words  of  St.  Paul  in  which  -he  so  strongly  recommends 
hospitality  as  one  of  the  virtues :  "  Be  not  forgetful  to  enter- 
tain strangers  :  for  thereby  some  have  entertained  angels  una- 
wares." (Heb.  xiii.  2.)  Or,  as  Massinger  has  rendered  the 
apostolic  precept,  — 

Learn  all, 

By  this  example,  to  look  on  the  poor 

With  gentle  eyes,  for  in  such  habits  often 

Angels  desire  an  alms. 

4.  The  Mass  of  St.  Gregory.  On  a  certain  occasion,  when 
St.  Gregory  was  officiating  at  the  mass,  one  who  was  near  him 
doubted  the  real  presence  ;  thereupon,  at  the  prayer  of  the 
saint,  a  vision  is  suddenly  revealed  of  the  crucified  Saviour 
Himself,  who  descends  upon  the  altar,  surrounded  by  the 
instruments  of  His  passion.  This  legend  has  been  a  popular 
subject  of  painting  from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  is  called  "  The  Mass  of  St.  Gregory."  I  have  met 
with  it  in  every  variety  of  treatment  and  grouping ;  but,  how- 
ever treated,  it  is  not  a  pleasing  subject.  St.  Gregory  is  seen 
officiating  at  the  altar,  surrounded  by  his  attendant  clergy. 
Sometimes  several  saints  are  introduced  in  a  poetical  manner, 
as  witnesses  of  the  miracle :  as  in  an  old  picture  I  saw  in  the 
gallery  of  Lord  Northwick,1  the  crucified  Saviour  descends 
from  the  cross  and  stands  on  the  altar,  or  is  upborne  in  the 
air  by  angels,  while  all  the  incidental  circumstances  and  in- 
struments of  the  Passion  —  not  merely  the  crown  of  thorns, 
the  spear,  the  nails,  but  the  kiss  of  Judas,  the  soldiers'  dice, 
the  cock  that  crew  to  Peter  —  are  seen  floating  in  the  air. 
As  a  specimen  of  the  utmost  naivete  in  this  representation 
may  be  mentioned  Albert  Dlirer's  woodcut. 

l  [The  collection  of  Lord  Northwick  was  dispersed  by  a  sale  in  1859.     Vide 
Redford's  Sales,  vol.  i.  p.  157.] 


ST.    GREGORY  317 

The  least  offensive  and  most  elegant  in  treatment  is  the 
marble  bas-relief  in  front  of  the  altar  in  the  Chapel  of  St. 
Gregory  at  Rome. 

5.  The  miracle  of  the  Brandeum.     The  Empress  Constantia 
sent  to  St.  Gregory  requesting  some  of  the  relics  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.      He  excused  himself,  saying  that  he  dared  not 
disturb  their  sacred  remains  for  such  a  purpose,  but  he  sent  her 
part  of  a  consecrated  cloth  (Brandeuni)  which  had  enfolded 
the  body  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.     The  empress  rejected 
this  gift   with   contempt :    whereupon  Gregory,   to  show  that 
such  things  are  hallowed  not  so  much  in  themselves  as  by  the 
faith  of  believers,  laid  the  Brandeum  on  the  altar,  and  after 
praying  he  took  up  a  knife  and  pierced  it,  and  blood  flowed  as 
from  a  living  body.     This  incident,  called  the  "miracle  del 
Brandei,"  has  also  been  painted.     Andrea  Sacchi  has  repre- 
sented it  in  a  grand  picture  now  in  the  Vatican ;  the  mosaic 
copy  is  over  the  altar  of  St.  Gregory  in  St.  Peter's.     Gregory 
holds  up  to  view  the  bleeding  cloth,  and  the  expression  of 
astonishment  and  conviction  in  the  countenances  of  the  assist- 
ants is  very  fine. 

6.  St.  Gregory  releases  the  soul  of  the  Emperor  Trajan.     In 
a  little   picture  in  the  Bologna  Academy,1  he  is  seen  praying 
before  a  tomb,  on  which  is  inscribed  TRAJANO  IMPERADOK  ; 
beneath  are  two  angels  raising  the  soul  of  Trajan  out  of  the 
flames.     Such  is  the  usual  treatment  of  this  curious  and  poetical 
legend,  which  is  thus  related  in  the   "  Legenda  Aurea:"    "It 
happened  on  a  time,  as  Trajan  was  hastening  to  battle  at  the 
head  of  his  legions,  that  a  poor  widow  flung  herself  in  his 
path,  and  cried  aloud  for  justice,  and  the  emperor  stayed  to 
listen  to  her ;  and  she  demanded  vengeance  for  the  innocent 
blood  of  her  son,  killed  by  the  son  of  the  emperor.      Trajan 
promised  to  do  her  justice  when   he   returned   from   his   ex- 
pedition.     'But,   sire,'  answered  the  widow,  'should  you  be 
killed  in  battle,  who  then  will  do  me  justice  ?  '      '  My  succes- 
sor,' replied  Trajan.      And  she  said,  '  What  will  it  signify  to 
you,  great  emperor,  that  any  other  than  yourself  should  do  me 
justice  ?     Is  it  not  better  that  you  should  do  this  good  action 
yourself  than  leave  another  to  do  it  ? '      And  Trajan,  alighted, 
and  having  examined  into  the  affair,  he  gave  up  his  own  son 

1  [The  name  of  the  artist  not  being  given,  it  is  not  possible  to  find  in  the 
Bologna  Gallery  catalogue  the  picture  here  refer  -ed  to.J 


318  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

to  her  in  place  of  him  she  had  lost,  and  bestowed  on  her  like- 
wise a  rich  dowry.  Now  it  came  to  pass  that  as  Gregory  was 
one  day  meditating  in  his  daily  walk,  this  action  of  the  Em- 
peror Trajan  came  into  his  mind,  and  he  wept  bitterly  to  think 
that  a  man  so  just  should  be  condemned  as  a  heathen  to  eternal 
punishment.  And  entering  into  a  church  he  prayed  most 
fervently  that  the  soul  of  the  good  emperor  might  be  released 
from  torment.  And  a  voice  said  to  him,  '  I  have  granted  thy 
prayer,  and  I  have  spared  the  soul  of  Trajan  for  thy  sake ;  but 
because  thou  hast  supplicated  for  one  whom  the  justice  of  God 
had  already  condemned,  thou  shalt  choose  one  of  two  things : 
either  thou  shalt  endure  for  two  days  the  fires  of  purgatory,  or 
thou  shalt  be  sick  and  infirm  for  the  remainder  of  thy  life.' 
Gregory  chose  the  latter,  which  sufficiently  accounts  for  the 
grievous  pains  and  infirmities  to  which  this  great  and  good 
man  was  subjected,  even  to  the  day  of  his  death." 

This  story  of  Trajan  was  extremely  popular  in  the  middle 
ages :  it  is  illustrative  of  the  character  of  Gregory,  and  the 
feeling  which  gave  rise  to  his  doctrine  of  Purgatory.  Dante 
twice  alludes  to  it ;  he  describes  it  as  one  of  the  subjects  sculp- 
tured on  the  walls  of  purgatory,  and  takes  occasion  to  relate 
the  whole  story  :  — 

There  was  storied  on  the  rock 
Th'  exalted  glory  of  the  Roman  prince, 
Whose  mighty  worth  moved  Gregory  to  earn 
His  mighty  conquest  —  Trajan  the  Emperor. 
A  widow  at  his  bridle  stood  attired 
In  tears  and  mourning.    Round  about  them  trooped 
Full  throng  of  knights:  and  overhead  in  gold 
The  eagles  floated,  struggling  with  the  wind. 
The  wretch  appeared  amid  all  these  to  say: 
"  Grant  vengeance,  sire  !  for,  woe  beshrew  this  heart, 
My  son  is  murdered !  "     He,  replying,  seemed  : 
"  Wait  now  till  I  return."     And  she,  as  one 
Made  hasty  by  her  grief:  "  0  sire,  if  thou 
Dost  not  return  ?  "  —  "  Where  I  am,  who  then  is, 
May  right  thee."  —  "  What  to  thee  is  other's  good, 
If  thou  neglect  thy  own  ?  "  —  "  Now  comfort  thee," 
At  length  he  answers.     "  It  beseemeth  well 
My  duty  be  performed,  ere  I  move  hence. 
So  justice  wills;  and  pity  bids  me  stay." 

Cary's  Dante,  Purg.  x. 

It  was  through  the  efficacy  of  St.  Gregory's  intercession  that 
Dante  afterwards  finds  Trajan  in  Paradise,  seated  between 
King  David  and  King  Hezekiah.  (Par.  xx.) 


MIRACLE  OF  ST.  GREGORY  (A.  SACCHI) 


ST.   GREGORY  319 

As  a  subject  of  painting,  the  story  of  Trajan  was  sometimes 
selected  as  an  appropriate  ornament  for  a  hall  of  justice.  We 
find  it  sculptured  on  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  pillars  of  the 
Ducal  Palace  at  Venice :  there  is  the  figure  of  the  widow 
kneeling,  somewhat  stiff,  but  very  simple  and  expressive,  and 
over  it  in  rude  ancient  letters,  —  "  Trajano  Imperador,  die  die 
justizia  a  la  Vedova"  In  the  Town  Hall  of  Ceneda,  near 
Belluna,  are  the  three  Judgments  (i  tre  Giudizi),  painted  by 
Pompeo  Amalteo  :  the  Judgment  of  Solomon,  the  Judgment 
of  Daniel,  and  the  Judgment  of  Trajan.  It  is  painted  in  the 
Town  Hall  of  Brescia  by  Giulio  Campi,  one  of  a  series  of  eight 
righteous  judgments. 

I  found  the  same  subject  in  the  Church  of  St.  Thomas  of 
Canterbury  at  Verona.  "  The  son  of  the  Emperor  Trajan 
trampling  over  the  son  of  the  widow  "  is  a  most  curious  com- 
position by  Hans  Schaufelein.  (Bartsch,  Le  Peintre  Graveur, 
vii.  264.) 

7.  There  was  a  monk,  who,  in  defiance  of  his  vow  of  pov- 
erty, secreted  in  his  cell  three  pieces  of  gold.  Gregory,  on 
learning  this,  excommunicated  him,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
monk  died.  When  Gregory  heard  that  the  monk  had  perished 
in  his  sin,  without  receiving  absolution,  he  was  filled  with 
grief  and  horror ;  and  he  wrote  upon  a  parchment  a  prayer 
and  a  form  of  absolution,  and  gave  it  to  one  of  his  deacons, 
desiring  him  to  go  to  the  grave  of  the  deceased  and  read  it 
there :  on  the  following  night  the  monk  appeared  in  a  vision, 
and  revealed  to  him  his  release  from  torment. 

This  story  is  represented  in  the  beautiful  bas-relief  in  white 
marble  in  front  of  the  altar  of  his  chapel ;  it  is  the  last  com- 
partment on  the  right.  The  obvious  intention  of  this  wild 
legend  is  to  give  effect  to  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  and  the 
efficacy  of  prayers  for  the  dead. 

St.  Gregory's  merciful  doctrine  of  purgatory  also  suggested 
those  pictures  so  often  found  in  chapels  dedicated  to  the  service 
of  the  dead,  in  which  he  is  represented  in  the  attitude  of  sup- 
plication, while  on  one  side,  or  in  the  background,  angels  are 
raising  the  tormented  souls  out  of  the  flames. 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration  I  have  seen  the  two  popes,  St. 
Gelasius,  who  reformed  the  calendar  in  494,  and  St.  Celesti- 
nus,  who  arranged  the  discipline  of  the  Monastic  Orders,  added 
to  the  series  of  beatified  Doctors  of  the  Church. 


320          THE  DOCTOKS  OF  THE  CHURCH 


II.  THE  FOUR  GREEK  FATHERS 

The  Four  Greek  Fathers  are  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil 
the  Great,  St.  Athanasius,  and  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  To 
these,  in  Greek  pictures,  a  fifth  is  generally  added,  St.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria. 

From  the  time  of  the  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Churches,  these  venerable  personages,  who  once  exercised 
such  an  influence  over  all  Christendom,  who  preceded  the 
Latin  Fathers,  and  were  in  fact  their  teachers,  have  been 
almost  banished  from  the  religious  representations  of  the  west 
of  Europe.  When  they  are  introduced  collectively  as  a  part 
of  the  decoration  of  an  ecclesiastical  edifice,  we  may  conclude 
in  general  that  the  work  is  Byzantine  and  executed  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  artists. 

A  signal  example  is  the  central  dome  of  the  baptistery  of 
St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  executed  by  Greek  artists  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  In  the  four  spandrils  of  the  vault  are 
the  Greek  Fathers  seated,  writing  (if  I  well  remember),  and  in 
the  purest  Byzantine  style  of  Art.  They  occupy  the  same 
places  here  that  we  find  usually  occupied  by  the  Latin  Doctors 
in  church  decoration :  each  has  his  name  inscribed  in  Greek 
characters.  We  have  exactly  the  same  representation  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Monreale  at  Palermo.  The  Greek  Fathers  have 
no  attributes  to  distinguish  them,  and  the  general  custom  in 
Byzantine  Art  of  inscribing  the  names  over  each  figure  renders 
this  unnecessary  :  in  general,  each  holds  a  book,  or,  in  some 
instances,  a  scroll,  which  represents  his  writings ;  while  the 
right  hand  is  raised  in  benediction,  in  the  Greek  manner,  the 
first  and  second  finger  extended,  arid  the  thumb  and  third 
finger  forming  a  cross.  According  to  the  formula  published 
by  M.  Didron,  each  of  the  Greek  Fathers  bears  on  a  scroll  the 
first  words  of  some  remarkable  passage  from  his  works :  thus, 
St.  John  Chrysostom  has  "  God,  our  God,  who  hath  given  us 
for  food  the  bread  of  life,"  etc.  ;  St.  Basil,  "  None  of  those 
who  are  in  the  bondage  of  fleshly  desires  are  worthy,"  etc.  ; 
St.  Athanasius,  "  Often,  and  anew,  do  we  flee  to  thee,  0  God," 
etc.  ;  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  "  God,  the  holy  among  the  ho- 
lies, the  thrice  holy,"  etc.;  and  St.  Cyril,  "Above  all,  a 
Virgin  without  sin  or  blemish,"  etc. 


ST.    JOHN   CHRYSOSTOM  321 

The  Greek  bishops  do  not  wear  mitres  ;  consequently,  when 
in  the  Italian  or  German  pictures  St.  Basil  or  any  of  his  com- 
panions wear  the  mitre,  it  is  a  mistake  arising  from  the  igno- 
rance of  the  artist. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Greek  Church  have  been  represented  by 
Domenichino  at  Grotta  Ferrata,  placed  over  the  cornice  and 
under  the  evangelists,  their  proper  place :  they  are  majestic 
figures,  with  fine  heads,  and  correctly  draped  according  to  the 
Greek  ecclesiastical  costume.  They  are  placed  here  with  pecul- 
iar propriety,  because  the  convent  originally  belonged  to  the 
Greek  order  of  St.  Basil,  and  the  founder,  St.  Nilus,  was  a 
Greek.1 

As  separate  devotional  and  historical  representations  of 
these  Fathers  do  sometimes,  though  rarely,  occur,  I  shall  say 
a  few  words  of  them  individually. 


ST.   JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM 

Lot.  Sanctus  Johannes  Chrysostom.  Itul.  San  Giovanni  Crises- 
tomo,  San  Giovanni  Bocca  d'  Oro.  Fr.  St.  Jean  Chrysostome. 
Died  September  14,  A.  D.  407.  His  festival  is  celebrated  by  the 
Greeks  on  the  13th  of  November,  and  by  the  Latin  Church  on 
the  27th  of  January. 

St.  John,  called  CHRYSOSTOM,  or  OF  THE  GOLDEN  MOUTH, 
because  of  his  extraordinary  eloquence,  was  born  at  Antioch 
in  344.  His  parents  were  illustrious,  and  the  career  opened 
to  him  was  of  arts  and  arms ;  but  from  his  infancy  the  bent 
of  his  mind  was  peculiar.  He  lost  his  father  when  young ; 
his  mother  Arthusia,  still  in  the  prime  of  her  life,  remained  a 
widow  for  his  sake,  and  superintended  his  education  with  care 
and  intelligence.  The  remark  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh  that 
"  all  distinguished  men  have  had  able  mothers,"  appears 
especially  true  of  the  great  churchmen  and  poets.  The 
mother  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  ranks  with  the  Monicas  and 
Sylvias,  already  described. 

John,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  was  already  a  renowned  pleader 
at  the  bar.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six,  the  disposition  to 
self-abnegation  and  the  passion  for  solitude,  which  had  dis- 

1  For  an  account  of  St.  Nilns,  and  the  foundation  of  Grotta  Ferrata,  see 
the  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders. 


322  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

tinguished  him  from  boyhood,  became  so  strong  that  he  wished 
to  retire  altogether  from  the  world  ;  his  legal  studies,  his  legal 
honors,  had  become  hateful  to  him :  he  would  turn  hermit. 
For  a  time  his  mother's  tears  and  prayers  restrained  him.  He 
has  himself  recorded  the  pathetic  remonstrance  in  which  she 
reminded  him  of  all  she  had  done  and  suffered  in  her  state  of 
widowhood  for  his  sake,  and  besought  him  not  to  leave  her. 
For  the  present  he  yielded :  but  two  years  later  he  fled  from 
society,  and  passed  five  or  six  years  in  the  wilderness  near 
Antioch,  devoting  himself  solely  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, to  penance  and  prayer  ;  feeding  on  the  wild  vegetables, 
and  leading  a  life  of  such  rigorous  abstinence  that  his  health 
sank  under  it,  and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Antioch. 

All  this  time  he  was  not  even  an  ordained  priest ;  but 
shortly  after  he  had  emerged  from  the  desert,  Flavian,  bishop 
of  Antioch,  ordained  him,  and  appointed  him  preacher.  At 
the  moment  of  his  consecration,  according  to  the  tradition,  a 
white  dove  descended  on  his  head,  which  was  regarded  as  the 
sign  of  immediate  inspiration.  He  then  entered  on  his  true 
vocation  as  a  Christian  orator,  the  greatest  next  to  Paul.  On 
one  occasion,  when  the  people  of  Antioch  had  offended  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  and  were  threatened  with  a  punishment 
like  that  which  had  fallen  on  Thessalonica,  the  eloquence  of 
St.  John  Chrysostom  saved  them  :  he  was  so  adored  by  the 
people,  that  when  he  was  appointed  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople it  was  necessary  to  kidnap  him,  and  carry  him  off  from 
Antioch  by  a  force  of  armed  soldiers,  before  the  citizens  had 
time  to  interfere. 

From  the  moment  he  entered  on  his  high  office  at  Constan- 
tinople he  became  the  model  of  a  Christian  bishop.  Humble, 
self-denying,  sleeping  on  a  bare  plank,  content  with  a  little 
bread  and  pulse,  he  entertained  with  hospitality  the  poor  and 
strangers :  indefatigable  as  a  preacher,  he  used  his  great  gift 
of  eloquence  to  convert  his  hearers  to  what  he  believed  to  be 
the  truth:  he  united  the  enthusiasm  and  the  imagination  of 
the  poet,  the  elegant  taste  of  the  scholar,  the  logic  of  the 
pleader,  with  the  inspired  earnestness  of  one  who  had  au- 
thority from  above.  He  was,  like  St.  Jerome,  remarkable  for 
his  influence  over  women ;  and  his  correspondence  with  one  of 
his  female  converts  and  friends,  Olympias,  is  considered  one 
of  the  finest  of  his  works  remaining  to  us ;  but,  inexorable  in 


ST.   JOHN   CHRYSOSTOM  323 

his  denunciations  of  vice,  without  regard  to  sex  or  station,  he 
thundered  against  the  irregularities  of  the  monks,  the  luxury 
and  profligacy  of  the  Empress  Eudosia,  and  the  servility  of 
her  flatterers,  and  brought  down  upon  himself  the  vengeance 
*of  that  haughty  woman,  with  whom  the  rest  of  his  life  was 
one  long  contest.  He  was  banished  :  the  voice  of  the  people 
obliged  the  emperor  to  recall  him.  Persisting  in  the  resolute 
defence  of  his  church  privileges,  and  his  animadversions  on 
the  court  and  the  clergy,  he  was  again  banished ;  and,  on  his 
way  to  his  distant  place  of  exile,  sank  under  fatigue  and  the 
cruel  treatment  of  his  guards,  who  exposed  him,  bare-headed 
and  bare-footed,  to  the  burning  sun  of  noon :  and  thus  he 
perished,  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  bishopric,  and  the  sixty- 
third  of  his  age.  Gibbon  adds,  that,  "  at  the  pious  solicita- 
tion of  the  clergy  and  people  of  Constantinople,  his  relics, 
thirty  years  after  his  death,  were  transported  from  their  ob- 
scure sepulchre  to  the  royal  city.  The  Emperor  Theodosius 
advanced  to  receive  them  as  far  as  Chalcedon,  and,  falling 
prostrate  on  the  coffin,  implored,  in  the  name  of  his  guilty 
parents,  Arcadius  and  Eudosia,  the  forgiveness  of  the  injured 
saint." 

It  is-  owing,  I  suppose,  to  the  intercourse  of  Venice  with 
the  East,  that  one  of  her  beautiful  churches  is  dedicated  to 
San  Gian  Grisostomo,  as  they  call  him  there,  in  accents  as 
soft  and  sonorous  as  his  own  Greek.  Over  the  high  altar  is 
the  grandest  devotional  picture  in  which'  I  have  seen  this  saint 
figure  as  a  chief  personage.  It  is  the  masterpiece  of  Sebastian 
del  Piombo,1  and  represents  St.  John  Chrysostom  throned  and 
in  the  act  of  writing  in  a  great  book  ;  behind  him,  St.  Paul. 
In  front,  to  the  right,  stands  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  behind 
him  St.  George,  as  patron  of  Venice ;  to  the  left  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, with  a  beautiful  Venetian  face ;  behind  her,  St.  Cath- 
erine, patroness  of  Venice ;  close  to  St.  J.  Chrysostom  stands 
St.  Lucia  holding  her  lamp ;  she  is  here  the  type  of  celestial 
light  or  wisdom.  (Dante,  Inf.  c.  xi.)  This  picture  was  for  a 
long  time  attributed  to  Giorgione.  There  was  also  a  very  fine 
majestic  figure  of  this  saint  by  Rubens,  in  the  collection  of 
M.  Schamp ;  he  is  in  the  habit  of  a  Greek  bishop  ;  in  one 
hand  he  holds  the  sacramental  cup,  and  the  left  hand  rests  on 

1  According  to  Sansovino,  begun  by  Giorgione,  and  finished  by  Sebastian. 


324  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

the  Gospel*:   the  celestial  dove  hovers  near  him,  and  two  angels 
are  in  attendance. 

I  cannot  quit  the  history  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  without 
alhiding  to  a  subject  well  known  to  collectors  and  amateurs,- 
and  popularly  called  "La  Penitence  de  St.  Jean  Chrysostome." 
It  represents  a  woman  undraped,  seated  in  a  cave,  or  wilder- 
ness, with  an  infant  in  her  arms ;  or  lying  on  the  ground  with 
a  new-born  infant  beside  her ;  in  the  distance  is  seen  a  man 
with  a  glory  round  his  head,  meagre,  naked,  bearded,  crawling 
on  his  hands  and  knees  in  the  most  abject  attitude  :  beneath, 
or  at  the  top,  is  inscribed  S.  JOHANNES  CKISOSTOMUS. 

For  a  long  time  this  subject  perplexed  me  exceedingly, 
as  I  was  quite  unable  to  trace  it  in  any  of  the  biographies  of 
Chrysostom,  ancient  or  modern :  the  kindness  of  a  friend, 
learned  in  all  the  byways  as  well  as  the  highways  of  Italian 
literature,  at  length  assisted  me  to  an  explanation. 

The  bitter  enmity  excited  against  St.  John  Chrysostom  in 
his  lifetime,  and  the  furious  vituperations  of  his  adversary, 
Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  who  denounced  him  as  one  stained 
by  every  vice,  "  hostem  humanitatis,  sacrilegorum  principew, 
immundum  dcemonem"  as  a  wretch  who  had  absolutely  de- 
livered up  his  soul  to  Satan,  were  apparently  disseminated  by 
the  monks.  Jerome  translated  the  abusive  attack  of  Theophi- 
lus into  Latin  ;  and  long  after  the  slanders  against  Chrysostom 
had  been  silenced  in  the  East,  they  survived  in  the  West.  To 
this  may  be  added  the  slaughter  of  the  Egyptian  monks  by 
the  friends  of  Chrysostom  in  the  streets  of  Constantinople  ; 
which,  I  suppose,  was  also  retained  in  the  traditions,  and  mixed 
up  with  the  monkish  fictions.  It  seems  to  have  been  forgotten 
wiio  John  Chrysostom  really  was ;  his  name  only  survived  in 
the  popular  ballads  and  legends  as  an  epitome  of  every  horrible 
crime ;  and  to  account  for  his  being,  notwithstanding  all  this, 
a  saint,  was  a  difficulty  which  in  the  old  legend  is  surmounted 
after  a  very  original,  and  I  must  needs  add,  a  very  audacious 
fashion.  "  I  have,"  writes  my  friend,  "  three  editions  of  this 
legend  in  Italian,  with  the  title  '  La  Historia  di  San  Giovanni 
Boccadoro.'  It  is  in  ottava  rima,  thirty -six  stanzas  in  all, 
occupying  two  leaves  of  letter-press.  It  was  originally  com- 
posed in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  reprinted  again  and  again, 
like  the  ballads  and  tales  hawked  by  itinerant  balladrnongers, 


ST.    JOHN   CHRYSOSTOM  325 

from  that  day  to  this,  and  as  well  known  to  the  lower  orders 
as  '  Jack  the  Giant- Killer  '  here.  I  will  give  you  the  story 
as  succinctly  and  as  properly  as  I  can.  A  gentleman  of  the 
high  roads,  named  Schitano,  confesses  his  robberies  and  murders 
to  a  certain  Frate,  who  absolves  him,  upon  a  solemn  promise 
not  to  do  three  things  — 

Che  tu  non  facci  falso  sacramento, 
Ne  homicidio,  ne  adulterare. 

Schitano  thereupon  takes  possession  of  a  cave,  and  turns 
Romito  (Hermit)  in  the  wilderness.  A  neighboring  king 
takes  his  daughter  out  hunting  with  him ;  a  Avhite  deer  starts 
across  their  path  ;  the  king  dashes  away  in  pursuit  ten  miles 
or  more,  forgetting  his  daughter ;  night  comes  on ;  the  prin- 
cess, left  alone  in  the  forest,  wanders  till  she  sees  a  light,  and 
knocks  for  admittance  at  the  cave  of  Schitano.  He  fancies 
at  first  that  it  must  be  the  'Demonio,'  but  at  length  he 
admits  her  after  long  hesitation,  and  turns  her  horse  out  to 
graze.  Her  beauty  tempts  him  to  break  one  of  his  vows;  the 
fear  of  discovery  induces  him  to  violate  another  by  murdering 
her,  and  throwing  her  body  into  a  cistern.  The  horse,  how- 
ever, is  seen  by  one  of  the  cavaliers  of  the  court,  who  knocks 
and  inquires  if  he  has  seen  a  certain  '  donzella '  that  way  ? 
The  hermit  swears  that  he  has  not  beheld  a  Christian  face  for 
three  years,  thus  breaking  his  third  vow ;  but,  reflecting  on 
this  threefold  sin  with  horror,  he  imposes  on  himself  a  most 
severe  penance  (;  un'  aspra  penitenza '),  to  wit :  — 

Di  stare  sette  anni  nelT  aspro  diserto, 

Pane  non  mangero  ne  bero  vino, 

Ne  mai  risguardero  il  ciel  scoperto, 

Non  parlero  Hebraico  ne  Latino, 

Per  fin  che  quel  ch'  io  dico  non  e  certo, 

Che  un  fantin  di  sei  di  porga  favella, 

'  Perdonato  t'  ha  Dio;  va  alia  tua  cella.' 

That  is,  he  swears  that  for  seven  years  he  will  neither  eat 
bread  nor  drink  wine,  nor  look  up  in  the  face  of  heaven,  nor 
speak  either  Hebrew  or  Latin,  until  it  shall  come  to  pass  that 
an  infant  of  seven  days  old  shall  open  its  mouth  and  say, 
'Heaven  hath  pardoned  thee  —  go  in  peace.'  So,  stripping 
off  his  clothes,  he  crawls  on  hands  and  knees  like  the  beasts  of 
the  field,  eating  grass  and  drinking  water. 


326  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

"Nor  did  his  resolution  fail  him  —  he  persists  in  this 
'  aspra  penitenza '  for  seven  years  — 

Sette  anni  e  sette  giorni  nel  diserto ; 
Come  le  bestie  andava  lui  carpone, 
E  mai  non  risguardo  il  ciel  scoperto, 
Peloso  egli  era  a  modo  d'  un  montone; 
Spine  e  fango  il  suo  letto  era  per  certo, 
Del  suo  peccato  havea  contrizione; 
E  ogni  cosa  facea  con  gran  fervore, 
Per  purgar  il  suo  fallo  e  grand'  errore. 

In  the  mean  time  it  came  into  the  king's  head  to  draw  the 
covers  where  the  hermit  was  leading  this  life.  The  dogs  of 
course  found,  but  neither  they  nor  the  king  could  make  any- 
thing of  this  new  species  of  animal,  '  die  pareva  un  orso.' 
So  they  took  him  home  in  a  chain  and  deposited  him  in  their 
zoological  collection,  where  he  refused  meat  and  bread,  and 
persisted  in  grazing.  On  new  year's  day  the  queen  gives 
birth  to  a  son,  who,  on  the  seventh  day  after  he  is  born,  says 
distinctly  to  the  hermit,  — 

Torna  alia  tua  cella, 
Che  Dio  t'  ha  perdonato  il  tuo  peccato, 
Levati  su,  Romito  !  ora  favella  ! 

But  the  hermit  does  not  speak  as  commanded  ;  he  makes  signs 
that  he  will  write.  The  king  orders  the  inkstand  to  be  brought, 
but  there  is  no  ink  in  it :  so  Schitano  at  once  earns  his  sur- 
name of  Boccadoro  (Chrysostom)  by  a  simple  expedient :  he 
puts  the  pen  to  his  mouth,  wets  it  with  his  saliva,  and  writes 
in  letters  of  gold,  — 

Onde  la  penna  in  bocca  si  metteva, 
E  a  scrivere  comincib  senza  dimoro, 
Col  sputo,  lettere  che  parevan  d'  oro  ! 

"  After  seven  years  and  seven  days,  he  opens  his  golden 
mouth  in  speech,  and  confesses  his  foul  crimes  to  the  king ; 
cavaliers  are  dispatched  in  search  of  the  body  of  the  princess  ; 
as  they  approach  the  cavern  they  hear  celestial  music  and  in 
the  end  they  bring  the  donzella  out  of  the  cistern  alive  and 
well,  and  very  sorry  to  leave  the  blessed  Virgin  and  the 
angels,  with  whom  she  had  been  passing  her  time  most  agree- 
ably :  she  is  restored  to  her  parents  with  universal  festa  e 
allegrezza,  and  she  announces  to  the  hermit  that  he  is  par- 
doned and  may  returned  to  his  cell,  which  he  does  forthwith, 


ST.   JOHN   CHRYSOSTOM  327 

and  ends  in  leading  the  life  of  a  saint,  and  being  beatified. 
The  '  discreti  auditori '  are  invited  to  take  example  — 

Da  questo  Santo  pien  di  leggiadria 
Che  Iddio  setnpre  perdona  a'  peccatori, 

and  are  finally  informed  that  they  may  purchase  this  edifying 
history  on  easy  terms,  to  wit,  a  halfpenny  — 

Due  quattrini  dia  senza  far  piu  parole. 

The  price,  however,  rose ;  for  in   the  next  century  the  line  is 
altered  thus :  — 

Pero  ciascun  che  comperarne  vuole, 

Tre  quattrini  mi  dia  senza  piu  parole." 

The  woodcuts  prefixed  to  the  ballad  represent  this  saintly 
Nebuchadnezzar  on  all  fours,  surprised  by  the  king  with  his 
huntsmen  and  dogs ;  but  no  female  figure,  as  in  the  German 
prints,  in  which  the  German  version  of  the  legend  has  evi- 
dently been  in  the  mind  of  the  artists.  It  differs  in  some 
respects  from  the  Italian  ballad.  I  shall  therefore  give  as 
much  of  it  here  as  will  explain  the  artistic  treatment  of  the 
story. 

"  When  John  Chrysostom  was  baptized,  the  Pope l  stood 
godfather.  At  seven  years  old  he  went  to  school,  but  he  was 
so  dull  and  backward  that  he  became  the  laughing-stock  of 
his  schoolfellows.  Unable  to  endure  their  mockery,  he  took 
refuge  in  a  neighboring  church,  and  prayed  to  the  Virgin ; 
and  a  voice  whispered,  '  Kiss  me  on  the  mouth,  and  thou 
shalt  be  endowed  with  all  learning.'  He  did  so,  and,  return- 
ing to  the  school,  he  surpassed  all  his  companions,  so  that 
they  remained  in  astonishment :  as  they  looked,  they  saw  a 
golden  ring  or  streak  round  his  mouth,  and  asked  him  how  it 
came  there  ?  and  when  he  told  them  they  wondered  yet  more. 
Thence  he  obtained  the  name  Chrysostom.  John  was  much 
beloved  by  his  godfather  the  Pope,  who  ordained  him  priest 
at  a  very  early  age ;  but  the  first  time  he  offered  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass,  he  was  struck  to  the  heart  by  his  unworthiness, 
and  resolved  to  seek  his  salvation  in  solitude ;  therefore, 
throwing  off  his  priestly  garments,  he  fled  from  the  city,  and 

1  The  Greek  word  Papa,  here  translated  der  Papst  (the  Pope),  betrays  the 
Eastern  origin  of  the  story.  It  is  the  general  title  of  the  Greek  priesthood,  and 
means  simply  a  priest,  elevated  in  the  German  legend  into  "the  Pope." 


328  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHUliCH 

made  his  dwelling  in  a  cavern  of  the  rock,  and  lived  there  a 
long  while  in  prayer  and  meditation. 

"Now  not  far  from  the  wilderness  in  which  Chrysostom 
dwelt  was  the  capital  of  a  great  king  ;  and  it  happened  that 
one  day,  as  the  princess  his  daughter,  who  was  young  and 
very  fair,  was  walking  with  her  companions,  there  came  a  sud- 
den and  violent  gust  of  wind,  which  lifted  her  up  and  carried 
her  away,  and  set  her  down  in  the  forest,  far  off;  and  she 
wandered  about  till  she  came  to  the  cave  of  Chrysostom  and 
knocked  at  the  door.  He,  fearing  some  temptation  of  the 
devil,  would  not  let  her  in  ;  but  she  entreated,  and  said,  '  I 
am  no  demon,  but  a  Christian  woman ;  and  if  thou  leavest  me 
here,  the  wild  beasts  will  devour  me ! '  So  he  yielded  per- 
force, and  arose  and  let  her  in.  And  he  drew  a  line  down  the 
middle  of  his  cell,  and  said,  '  That  is  your  part,  this  is  mine  ; 
and  neither  shall  pass  this  line.'  But  this  precaution  was  in 
vain,  for  passion  and  temptation  overpowered  his  virtue  ;  he 
overstepped  the  line,  and  sinned.  Both  repented  sorely ;  and 
Chrysostom,  thinking  that  if  the  damsel  remained  longer  in 
his  cave  it  would  only  occasion  further  sin,  carried  her  to  a 
neighboring  precipice,  and  flung  her  down.  When  he, had 
done  this  deed,  he  was  seized  with  horror  and  remorse ;  and 
he  departed  and  went  to  Rome  to  his  godfather  the  Pope,  and 
confessed  all,  and  entreated  absolution.  But  his  godfather 
knew  him  not ;  and,  being  seized  with  horror,  he  drove  him 
forth,  and  refused  to  absolve  him.  So  the  unhappy  sinner 
fled  to  the  wilderness,  and  made  a  solemn  vow  that  he  would 
never  rise  from  the  earth  nor  look  up,  but  crawl  on  his  hands 
and  knees,  until  he  had  expiated  his  great  sin  and  was  ab- 
solved by  Heaven. 

"  When  he  had  thus  crawled  on  the  earth  for  fifteen  years, 
the  queen  brought  forth  a  son ;  and  when  the  Pope  came  to 
baptize  the  child,  the  infant  opened  its  mouth  and  said,  'I 
will  not  be  baptized  by  thee,  but  by  St.  John  ;  '  and  he  repeated 
this  three  times  :  and  none  could  understand  this  miracle  ; 
but  the  Pope  was  afraid  to  proceed.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
king's  huntsmen  had  gone  to  the  forest  to  bring  home  game 
for  the  christening  feast :  there  as  they  rode,  they  beheld  a 
strange  beast  creeping  on  the  ground ;  and  not  knowing  what 
it  might  be,  they  threw  a  mantle  over  it  and  bound  it  in  a 
chain  and  brought  it  to  the  palace.  Many  came  to  look  on 


ST.   JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM  329 

this  strange  beast,  and  with  them  came  the  nurse  with  the 
king's  son  in  her  arms ;  and  immediately  the  child  opened  its 
mouth  and  spake,  '  John,  come  thou,  and  baptize  me  ! '  He 
answered,  '  If  it  be  God's  will,  speak  again ! '  And  the 
child  spoke  the  same  words  a  second  and  a  third  time.  Then 
John  stood  up ;  and  the  hair  and  the  moss  fell  from  his  body, 
and  they  brought  him  garments  ;  and  he  took  the  child,  and 
baptized  him  with  great  devotion. 

"  When  the  king  heard  his  confession,  he  thought,  '  Per- 
haps this  was  my  daughter,  who  was  lost  and  never  found ;  ' 
and  he  sent  messengers  into  the  forest  to  seek  for  the  remains 
of  his  daughter,  that  her  bones  at  least  might  rest  in  conse- 
crated ground.  When  they  came  to  the  foot  of  the  preci- 
pice, there  they  found  a  beautiful  woman  seated,  naked,  and 
holding  a  child  in  her  arms  ;  and  John  said  to  her,  '  Why 
sittest  thou  here  alone  in  the  wilderness  ? '  And  she  said, 
'  Dost  thou  not  know  me  ?  I  am  the  woman  who  came  to 
thy  cave  by  night,  and  whom  thou  didst  hurl  down  this 
rock ! '  Then  they  brought  her  home  with  great  joy  to  her 
parents."  l 

This  extravagant  legend  becomes  interesting  for  two  rea- 
sons :  it  shows  the  existence  of  the  popular  feeling  and  belief 
with  regard  to  Chrysostom,  long  subsequent  to  those  events 
which  roused  the  hatred  of  the  early  monks  ;  and  it  has  been, 
from  its  popular  notoriety,  embodied  in  some  rare  and  valu- 
able works  of  art,  which  all  go  under  the  name  of  "  the  Pen- 
ance or  Penitence  of  Johannes  Chrysostom  or  Crisostomos." 

1.  A  rare  print  by  Lucas  Cranach,  composed  and  engraved 
by  himself.     In  the  centre  is  an  undraped  woman  reclining  on 
the   ground   against  a   rock,  and   contemplating   her   sleeping 
infant,  which  is  lying  on  her  lap  ;  a  stag,  a  hind  crouching,  a 
pheasant  feeding  near  her,  express  the  solitude  of  her  life  ;   in 
the  background  is  "  the  savage  man  "  on  all  fours,  and  brows- 
ing :  here,  he  has  no  glory  round  his  head.     The  whole  com- 
position is  exceedingly  picturesque. 

2.  A  rare  and  beautiful  print  by  B.  Beham,  and  repeated 
by   Hans  Sebald  Beham,  represents  a  Avoman  lying  on   the 
ground  with  her  back  turned  to  the  spectator ;  a  child  is  near 

1  Koburgher,  Legendtnsammlung,  1488,  p.  325;  Heller's  Leben  und  Werke 
Albrecht  Duress,  p.  440. 


330 


THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 


The  Penance  of  St.  Chrysostom  (Albert  Diirer) 

her ;  Chrysostom  is  seen  crawling  in  the  background,  with  the 
glory  round  his  head. 

3.  A  small  print  by  Albert  Diirer,  also  exquisitely  engraved 
(from  which  I  give  a  sketch).  Here  the  woman  is  sitting  at 
the  entrance  of  a  rocky  cave,  feeding  her  child  from  her  bosom  : 
in  the  background  the  "  savage  man "  crawling  on  all  fours, 
and  a  glory  round  his  head.  This  subject  has  been  called  St. 
Genevieve  of  Brabant ;  but  it  is  evidently  the  same  as  in  the 
two  last-named  compositions. 

All  these  prints,  being  nearly  contemporaneous^  show  that 


ST.   BASIL   THE   GREAT  331 

the  legend  must  have  been  particularly  popular  about  this 
time  (1509-1520).  There  is  also  an  old  French  version  of 
the  story  which  I  have  not  seen. 

ST.  BASIL  THE  GREAT 

Lot.   St.  Basilius  Magnus.     ItaL   San  Basilio  Magno.     Fr.   St. 
Basile.     (June  14,  A.  D.  380.) 

St.  Basil,  called  the  Great,  was  born  at  Cesarea  in  Cappado- 
cia,  in  the  year  328.  He  was  one  of  a  family  of  saints.  His 
father  St.  Basil,  his  mother  St.  Emnielie,  his  two  brothers  St. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  St.  Peter  of  Sebaste,  and  his  sister  St. 
Macrina,  were  all  distinguished  for  their  sanctity,  and  renowned 
in  the  Greek  calendar.  The  St.  Basil  who  takes  rank  as  the 
second  luminary  of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  whose  dogmatical 
and  theological  works  influenced  the  faith  of  his  own  age,  and 
consequently  of  ours,  was  the  greatest  of  all.  But,  notwith- 
standing his  importance  in  the  Greek  Church,  he  figures  so 
seldom  in  the  productions  of  Western  Art,  that  I  shall  content 
myself  with  relating  just  so  much  of  his  life  and  actions  as 
may  render  the  few  representations  of  him  interesting  and 
intelligible. 

He  owed  his  first  education  to  his  grandmother  St.  Macrina, 
the  elder,  a  woman  of  singular  capacity  and  attainments,  to 
whom  he  has  in  various  parts  of  his  works  acknowledged  his 
obligations.  For  several  years  he  pursued  his  studies  in  pro- 
fane learning,  philosophy,  law,  and  eloquence,  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  afterwards  at  Athens,  where  he  had  two  companions 
and  fellow-students  of  very  opposite  character:  Gregory  of 
Nazianzen,  afterwards  the  Saint ;  and  Julian,  afterwards  the 
Apostate. 

The  success  of  the  youthful  Basil  in  all  his  studies,  and  the 
reputation  he  had  obtained  as  an  eloquent  pleader,  for  a  time 
swelled  his  heart  with  vanity,  and  would  have  endangered  his 
salvation  but  for  the  influence  of  his  sister,  St.  Macrina,  who 
in  this  emergency  preserved  him  for  himself,  and  elevated  his 
mind  to  far  higher  airiis  than  those  of  mere  worldly  science 
and  worldly  distinction.  From  that  period,  and  he  was  then 
not  more  than  twenty-eight,  Basil  turned  his  thoughts  solely 
to  the  edification  of  the  Christian  Church ;  but  first  he  spent 
some  years  in  retreat  among  the  hermits  of  the  desert,  as  was 


332  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

the  fashion  of  that  day,  living,  as  they  did,  in  abstinence, 
poverty,  and  abstracted  study ;  acknowledging  neither  country, 
family,  home,  nor  friends,  nor  fortune,  nor  worldly  interests 
of  any  kind,  but  with  his  thoughts  fixed  solely  on  eternal  life 
in  another  world.  In  these  austerities  he,  as  was  also  usual, 
consumed  and  ruined  his  bodily  health  ;  and  remained  to  the 
end  of  his  life  a  feeble  wretched  invalid,  —  a  circumstance 
which  was  supposed  to  contribute  greatly  to  his  sanctity.  He 
was  ordained  priest  in  362,  and  bishop  of  Cesarea  in  370 ;  his 
ordination  on  the  14th  of  June  being  kept  as  one  of  the  great 
feasts  of  the  Eastern  Church* 

On  the  episcopal  throne  he  led  the  same  life  of  abstinence 
and  humility  as  in  a  cavern  of  the  desert ;  and  contended  for 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  against  the  Arians,  but  with  less  of 
vehemence,  and  more  of  charity,  than  the  other  Doctors  en- 
gaged in  the  same  controversy.  The  principal  event  of  his 
life  was  his  opposition  to  the  Emperor  Valens,  who  professed 
Arianism,  and  required  that,  in  the  Church  of  Cesarea,  Basil 
should  perform  the  rite  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Arians. 
The  bishop  refused  :  he  was  threatened  with  exile,  confiscation, 
death :  he  persisted.  The  emperor,  fearing  a  tumult,  resolved 
to  appear  in  the  church  on  the  day  of  the  Epiphany,  but  not 
to  communicate.  He  came,  hoping  to  overawe  the  impracti- 
cable bishop,  surrounded  by  all  his  state,  his  courtiers,  his 
guards.  He  found  Basil  so  intent  on  his  sacred  office  as  to 
take  not  the  slightest  notice  of  him  ;  those  of  the  clergy  around 
him  continued  to  chant  the  service,  keeping  their  eyes  fixed  in 
the  profoundest  awe  and  respect  on  the  countenance  of  their 
bishop.  Valens,  in  a  situation  new  to  him,  became  agitated : 
he  had  brought  his  oblation ;  he  advanced  with  it ;  but  the 
ministers  at  the  altar,  not  knowing  whether  Basil  would  accept 
it,  dared  not  take  it  from  his  hands.  Valens  stood  there  for  a 
moment  in  sight  of  all  the  people,  rejected  before  the  altar,  — 
he  lost  his  presence  of  mind,  trembled,  swooned,  and  would 
have  fallen  to  the  earth,  if  one  of  the  attendants  had  not 
received  him  in  his  arms.  A  conference  afterwards  took  place 
between  Basil  and  the  emperor ;  but  the'  latter  remained  uncon- 
verted, and  some  concessions  to  the  Catholics  was  all  that  the 
bishop  obtained. 

St.  Basil  died  in  379,  worn  out  by  disease,  and  leaving 
behind  him  many  theological  writings.  His  epistles,  above 


ST.    BASIL   THE   GREAT  333 

all,  are  celebrated,  not  only  as  models  of  orthodoxy,  but  of 
style. 

Of  St.  Basil,  as  of  St.  Gregory  and  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
we  have  the  story  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  visible  form  as  a  dove 
of  wonderful  whiteness,  perched  on  his  shoulder,  and  inspiring 
his  words  when  he  preached.  St.  Basil  is  also  celebrated  as 
the  founder  of  Monachism  in  the  East.  He  was  the  first  who 
enjoined  the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience ;  and 
his  Rule  became  the  model  of  all  other  monastic  Orders. 
There  is,  in  fact,  no  other  Order  in  the  Greek  Church,  and 
when  either  monks  or  nuns  appear  in  a  Greek  or  a  Russian 
picture  they  must  be  Basilicans,  and  no  other :  the  habit  is  a 
plain  black  tunic  with  a  cowl,  the  tunic  fastened  round  the 
waist  with  a  girdle  of  cord  or  leather.  Such  is  the  dress  of 
the  Greek  caloyer,  and  it  never  varies. 

The  devotional  figures  of  St.  Basil  represent  him,  or  ought 
to  represent  him,  in  the  Greek  pontificals,  bareheaded,  and 
with  a  thin  worn  countenance. 

"  The  Emperor  Valens  in  the  church  at  Cesarea,''*  an  admir- 
ably picturesque  subject,  has  received  as  little  justice  as  the 
scene  between  Ambrose  and  Theodosius.  When  the  French 
painter  Subleyras  was  at  Rome  in  1745,  he  raised  himself  to 
name  and  fame  by  his  portrait  of  Benedict  XIV.  (Sutherland 
Gallery),  and  received,  through  the  interest  of  his  friend  Car- 
dinal Valenti,  the  commission  to  paint  a  picture  for  one  of  the 
mosaics  in  St.  Peter's.  The  subject  selected  was  the  Emperor 
Valens  fainting  in  presence  of  St.  Basil.  We  have  all  the 
pomp  of  the  scene  :  the  altar,  the  incense,  the  richly  attired 
priests  on  one  side  ;  on  the  other,  the  imperial  court.  It  is 
not  easy  to  find  fault,  for  the  picture  is  well  drawn,  well 
composed,  in  the  mannered  taste  of  that  time;  well  colored, 
rather  tenderly  than  forcibly  ;  and  Lanzi  is  enthusiastic  in  his 
praise  of  the  draperies ;  yet,  as  a  whole,  it  leaves  the  mind 
unimpressed.  As  usual,  the  original  sketch  for  this  picture 
far  excels  the  large  composition.  ("  La  Messe  de  saint  Basile." 
Louvre.) 

The  prayers  of  St.  Basil  were  supposed  by  the  Armenian 
Christians,  partly  from  his  sanctity,  and  partly  from  his  intel- 
lectual endowments,  to  have  a  peculiar,  almost  resistless,  power ; 


334  THE   DOCTORS   OF   THE   CHURCH 

so  that  he  not  only  redeemed  souls  from  purgatory,  but  even 
lost  angels  from  the  abyss  of  hell.  "  On  the  sixth  day  of  the 
creation,  when  the  rebellious  angels  fell  from  heaven  through 
that  opening  in  the  firmament  which  the  Armenians  call  Aro- 
cea,  and  we  the  Galaxy,  one  unlucky  angel,  who  had  no  parti- 
cipation in  their  sin,  but  seems  to  have  been  entangled  in  the 
crowd,  fell  with  them."  (A  moral,  I  presume,  on  the  conse- 
quences of  keeping  bad  company.)  "  And  this  unfortunate 
angel  was  not  restored  till  he  had  obtained,  it  is  not  said  how, 
the  prayers  of  St.  Basil.  His  condition  meantime,  from  the 
sixth  day  of  the  creation  to  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  must  have  been  even  more  uncomfortable  than  that  of 
Klopstock's  repentant  demon  in  '  The  Messiah.' ': 

There  are  many  other  beautiful  legendary  stories  of  St. 
Basil,  but,  as  I  have  never  met  with  them  in  any  form  of  Art, 
I  pass  them  over  here.  One  of  the  most  striking  has  been 
versified  by  Southey  in  his  ballad-poem,  "  All  for  Love."  It 
would  afford  a  great  variety  of  picturesque  subjects. 


ST.  ATHANASIUS 

Lat.  S.  Athanasius,  Peter  Orthodoxise.     Ital.  Sant'  Atanasio.    Fr. 
St.  Athanase.     (May  2,  A.  D.  373.) 

St.  Athanasius,  whose  famous  Creed  remains  a  stumbling- 
block  in  Christendom,  was  born  at  Alexandria,  about  the  year 
298 ;  he  was  consequently  the  eldest  of  the  Greek  Fathers, 
though  he  does  not  in  that  Church  take  the  first  rank.  He, 
like  the  others,  began  his  career  by  the  study  of  profane  liter- 
ature, science,  and  eloquence  ;  but,  seized  by  the  religious 
spirit  of  the  age,  he,  too,  fled  to  the  desert,  and  became,  for  a 
time,  the  pupil  of  St.  Anthony.  He  returned  to  Alexandria, 
and  was  ordained  deacon.  His  first  appearance  as  a  public 
character  was  at  the  celebrated  council  of  Nice  (A.  D.  325), 
where  he  opposed  Arius  and  his  partisans  with  so  much  zeal 
and  eloquence,  that  he  was  thenceforth  regarded  as  the  great 
pillar  of  orthodoxy.  He  became  bishop  of  Alexandria  the 
following  year ;  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  a  perpetual  con- 
test with  the  Arians.  The  great  schism  of  the  early  Church 
blazed  at  this  time  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and  Athana- 


ST.   GREGORY   NAZIANZEN  335 

sius,  by  his  invincible  perseverance  and  intrepidity,  procured 
the  victory  for  the  Catholic  party.  He  died  in  372,  after  hav- 
ing been  bishop  of  Alexandria  forty-six  years,  of  which  twenty 
years  had  been  spent  in  exile  and  tribulation. 

It  is  curious  that,  notwithstanding  his  fame  and  his  impor- 
tance in  the  Church,  St.  Athanasius  should  be,  as  a  patron  and 
a  subject  of  Art,  of  all  saints  the  most  unpopular.  He  figures, 
of  course,  as  one  of  the  series  of  Greek  Doctors  ;  but  I  have 
never  met  with  any  separate  representation  of  him,  and  I  know 
not  any  church  dedicated  to  him,  nor  any  picture  representing 
the  vicissitudes  of  his  unquiet  life,  fraught  as  it  was  with 
strange  reverses  and  picturesque  incidents.  Such  may  exist, 
but  in  Western  Art,  at  least,  they  have  never  been  prominent. 
According  to  the  Greek  formula,  he  ought  to  be  represented 
old,  bald-headed,  and  with  a  long  white  beard. 

ST.  GREGORY  NAZIANZEN 

Gr.  St.  Gregory  Theologos.  Lot.  S.  Gregorius  Nazianzenus.  Ital. 
San  Gregorio  Nazianzeno.  Fr.  St.  Gregoire  de  Naziance.  Ger. 
St.  Gregor  von  Nazianz.  (May  9,  A.  D.  390.) 

This  Doctor,  like  St.  Basil,  was  one  of  a  family  of  saints ; 
his  father,  St.  Gregory,  having  been  bishop  of  Nazianzus  be- 
fore him ;  his  mother,  St.  Nonna,  famous  for  her  piety  ;  and 
two  of  his  sisters,  St.  Gorgonia  and  St.  Cesarea,  also  canon- 
ized. Gregory  was  born  about  the  year  328 ;  and  his  mother, 
who  fondly  believed  that  he  had  been  granted  to  her  prayers, 
watched  over  his  early  education,  and  guided  his  first  steps  in 
piety  and  literature.  When  a  boy,  he  had  a  singular  dream, 
which  he  has  related  himself.  He  beheld  in  his  sleep  two  vir- 
gins of  celestial  beauty  ;  they  were  clothed  in  white  garments, 
and  their  faces  shone  upon  him  like  two  stars  out  of  heaven  ; 
they  took  him  in  their  arms  and  kissed  him  as  if  he  had  been 
their  child.  He,  charmed  by  their  virgin  beauty  and  their  ca- 
resses, asked  who  they  were,  and  whence  they  came  ?  One  of 
them  replied,  "  I*m  called  Chastity,  and  my  sister  here  is  Tem- 
perance ;  we  come  to  thee  from  Paradise,  where  we  stand  con- 
tinually before  the  throne  of  Christ,  and  taste  ineffable  delights  : 
come  to  us,  my  son,  and  dwell  with  us  forever  ;  "  and  having 
spoken  thus,  they  left  him  and  flew  upwards  to  heaven.  He 


336  THE   DOCTOES    OF   THE   CHURCH 

followed  them  Avith  longing  eyes  till  they  disappeared,  and  as 
he  stretched  his  arms  towards  them  he  awoke. 

This  dream  —  how  natural  in  a  boy  educated  between  a  ten- 
der mother,  who  had  shielded  him,  as  only  mothers  can,  against 
all  sinful  temptations,  and  a  lovely  and  saintly  sister !  —  he 
regarded  as  a  direct  revelation  from  heaven  :  it  decided  his 
future  life,  and  he  made  a  vow  of  perpetual  continence  and 
temperance.  Like  the  other  Greek  doctors,  he  began  by  the 
study  of  profane  literature  and  rhetoric.  He  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  formed  an  enduring  friendship  with  St.  Basil,  and 
pursued  his  studies  with  Julian,  afterwards  Caesar  and  Apos- 
tate. After  leaving  Athens,  in  his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  bap- 
tized ;  and,  devoting  himself  solemnly  to  the  service  of  God  and 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  like  his  friend  Basil,  he  destroyed 
his  health  by  his  austerities  and  mortifications  :  he  confesses 
that  they  were  wholly  repugnant  to  his  nature  —  a  nature  sen- 
sitive, imaginative,  poetical ;  but  this  of  course  only  added  to 
their  merit  and  efficacy.  His  aged  father  withdrew  him  from 
his  solitude,  and  ordained  him  as  his  coadjutor  :  in  362  he 
succeeded  to  the  bishopric  of  Xazianzus  ;  but  great  part  of  his 
time  was  still  spent  at  Constantinople,  whither  he  was  invited 
to  preach  against  the  Arians.  It  was  a  strange  spectacle  to 
see,  in  the  capital  of  the  world,  a  man,  from  a  distant  prov- 
ince and  an  obscure  town,  of  small  shrunken  stature,  bald- 
headed,  wrinkled,  haggard  with  vigils  and  fasting,  poor,  ill- 
clothed,  and  in  his  address  unpolished  and  abrupt,  stand  up  to 
oppose  himself  to  a  luxurious  court  and  prevalent  sect.  The 
people  began  by  stoning  him ;  but  at  length  his  earnestness 
and  eloquence  overcame  all  opposition. 

Religious  disputes  were  the  fashion  at  that  time  in  Constan- 
tinople, not  merely  among  the  priesthood,  but  among  the  laity, 
the  lawyers,  and  above  all  the  women,  who  were  heard,  in 
assemblies  and  at  feasts,  at  home  and  abroad,  declaiming  and 
arguing  on  the  most  abstruse  mysteries  of  the  evangelical  doc- 
trine, till  they  lost  temper  and  modesty  ;  so  true  it  is,  that 
there  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun.  This  was  in  378,  and 
St.  Gregory  found  more  difficulty  in  silencing  their  squabbles 
than  in  healing  the  schisms  of  the  Church.  He  was  ordained 
bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  favor  of  Theodosius  ;  but, 
unable  to  endure  the  odious  cabals  and  uncharitable  contests 
which  at  that  time  distracted  and  disgraced  Christianity,  ho 


ST.    CYRIL  337 

resigned  his  sacred  office,  and  retired  to  a  small  paternal  estate, 
where  he  lived,  with  his  usual  self-denial  and  austerity,  till  his 
death.  He  composed  in  his  retreat  a  number  of  beautiful 
poems  in  his  native  Greek :  he  was,  in  fact,  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian poet  on  record.  These  poems  are  not  hymns  only,  but 
lyrics,  in  which  he  poured  forth  his  soul,  his  aspirations,  his 
temptations,  his  joys,  his  sufferings,  his  plaintive  supplications 
to  Christ,  to  aid  him  in  his  perpetual  combats  against  a  too 
vivid  imagination,  and  feelings  and  passions  which  not  even 
age  and  penance  had  subdued. 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  ought  to  be  represented  as  an  old 
man  wasted  by  fasting  and  vigils,  with  a  bald  head,  a  long 
beard  of  a  reddish  color,  and  eyebrows  the  same.  He  is  al- 
ways the  last  in  a  series  of  the  Four  Greek  Fathers,  and, 
though  often  occurring  in  Greek  Art,  the  popularity  of  St.* 
Gregory  the  GREAT  has  completely  banished  St.  Gregory  the 
POET  from  Western  Art. 

There  remains,  however,  a  very  valuable  and  singular  mon- 
ument to  the  honor  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  in  the  Greek 
MS.  of  his  sermons  preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris, 
and  adorned  with  Byzantine  miniatures,  which  must  once  have 
been  beautiful  and  brilliant :  ruined  as  they  are,  they  present 
some  of  the  most  ancient  examples  which  remain  to  us  of  the 
treatment  of  many  sacred  subjects  from  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament,  and  give  a  high  idea  of  the  classic  taste  and  the 
skill  of  the  Byzantine  limners  of  the  ninth  century.  Besides 
the  sacred  subjects,  we  have  numerous  scenes  interspersed  from 
the  life  of  Gregory  himself,  his  friend  St.  Basil,  and  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius.  As  these  are  subjects  which  are  exceptional, 
I  need  not  describe  them.  Of  the  style  of  the  miniatures  I 
have  already  spoken. 


ST.  CYRIL 

Lnt.  St.  Cyrillus.     Ital.  San  Cirillo.     Fr.  St.   Cyrille.     (Jan.  28, 
A.  D.  444.) 

St.  Cyril,  patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  the  year  412  to  444, 
was  famous  in  his  time  as  deeply  engaged  in  all  the  contests 
which  disturbed  the  early  Christian  Church.  He  has  left  a 


338  THE   DOCTOKS   OF   THE   CHUECH 

great  number  of  theological  writings,  which  are  regarded  as 
authority  in  matters  of  faith.  He  appears  to  have  been  vio- 
lent against  the  so-called  heresies  of  that  day,  and  opposed 
Nestorius  with  the  same  determined  zeal  and  inexorable  firm- 
ness with  which  Athanasius  had  opposed  Arius.  The  ascend- 
ancy of  Cyril  was  disgraced  by  the  death  of  the  famous  female 
mathematician  and  philosopher  Hypatia,  murdered  with  hor- 
rible cruelty,  and  within  the  walls  of  a  church,  by  the  fanatic 
followers  of  the  patriarch,  if  he  did  not  himself  connive  at  it. 
He  is  much  more  venerated  in  the  Greek  than  in  the  Latin 
Church.  In  the  Greek  representations  he  is  the  only  bishop 
who  has  his  head  covered ;  he  wears  a  veil  or  hood,  coming 
over  his  head,  falling  down  on  his  shoulders,  and  the  front 
embroidered  with  a  cross. 

With  the  Greek  Fathers  I  conclude  the  list  of  those  saints 
who  are  generally  represented  in  their  collective  character, 
grouped,  or  in  a  series. 


VI.  ST.  MAEY  MAGDALENE,  ST.  MAETHA,  ST. 
LAZARUS,  ST.  MAXIMIN,  ST.  MARCELLA,  ST. 
MARY  OF  EGYPT,  AND  THE  BEATIFIED  PEN- 
ITENTS 

ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE 

Lot.  Sancta  Maria  Magdalena.  Ital.  Santa  Maria  Maddalena.  Fr. 
La  Madeleine.  La  Sainte  Demoiselle  pecheresse.  Patroness  of 
Provence,  of  Marseilles,  and  of  frail  and  penitent  women.  (July 
22,  A.  D.  68.) 

OF  all  the  personages  who  figure  in  history,  in  poetry,  in 
art,  Mary  Magdalene  is  at  once  the  most  unreal  and  the  most 
real,  —  the  most  unreal,  if  we  attempt  to  fix  her  identity, 
which  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute  for  ages ;  the  most  real, 
if  we  consider  her  as  having  been,  for  ages,  recognized  and 
accepted  in  every  Christian  heart  as  the  impersonation  of  the 
penitent  sinner  absolved  through  faith  and  love.  In  this,  her 
mythic  character,  she  has  been  surrounded  by  associations  which 
have  become  fixed  in  the  imagination,  and  which  no  reasoning, 
no  array  of  facts,  can  dispel.  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter 
into  disputed  points  of  biblical  criticism ;  they  are  quite  be- 
side our  present  purpose.  Whether  Mary  Magdalene,  "out 
of  whom  Jesus  cast  seven  devils,"  Mary  of  Bethany,  and  the 
"woman  who  was  a  sinner,"  be,  as  some  authorities  assert, 
three  distinct  persons,  or,  as  others  affirm,  one  and  the  same 
individual  under  different  designations,  remains  a  question 
open  to  dispute,  nothing  having  been  demonstrated  on  either 
side,  from  Scripture  or  from  tradition  ;  and  I  cannot  presume 
even  to  give  an  opinion  where  doctors  —  and  doctors  of  the 
Church,  too  —  disagree  ;  Origen  and  St.  Chrysostom  taking 
one  side  of  the  question,  St.  Clement  and  St.  Gregory  the 
other.  Fleury,  after  citing  the  opinions  of  both  sides,  thus 
beautifully  sums  up  the  whole  question :  "  II  importe  de  ne 
pas  croire  tdmerairement  ce  que  1'Evangile  ne  dit  point,  et  de 
ne  pas  mettre  la  religion  a  suivre  aveuglement  toutes  les  opin- 
ions populaires :  la  foi  est  trop  precieuse  pour  la  prodiguer 


340  ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE 

ainsi;  mais  la  charitd  Test  encore  plus;  et  ce  qui  est  le  plus 
important,  c'est  d'eViter  les  disputes  qui  peuvent  Faltdrer  tant 
soit  peu." l  And  this  is  most  true :  in  his  time  the  fast 
hold  which  the  Magdalene  had  taken  of  the  affections  of  the 
people  was  not  to  be  shaken  by  theological  researches  and 
doubts.  Here  critical  accuracy  was  nothing  less  than  profana- 
tion and  scepticism,  and  to  have  attacked  the  sanctity  of  the 
Blessed  Mary  Magdalene  would  have  embittered  and  alienated 
many  kindly  and  many  believing  spirits.  It  is  difficult  to 
treat  of  Mary  Magdalene ;  and  this  difficulty  would  be  in- 
creased infinitely  if  it  were  absolutely  necessary  to  enter  on 
the  much-vexed  question  of  her  scriptural  character  and  iden- 
tity ;  one  thing  only  appears  certain,  —  that  such  a  person,  what- 
ever might  have  been  her  veritable  appellation,  did  exist.  The 
woman  who,  under  the  name  of  Mary  Magdalene,  —  whether 
that  name  be  rightfully  or  wrongfully  bestowed,  —  stands  before 
us  sanctified  in  the  imagination  and  in  the  faith  of  the  people 
in  her  combined  character  of  Sinner  and  of  Saint,  as  the  first- 
fruits  of  Christian  penitence,  —  is  a  reality,  and  not  a  fiction. 
Even  if  we  would,  we  cannot  do  away  with  the  associations 
inseparabty  connected  with  her  name  and  her  image.  Of  all 
those  to  whom  much  has  been  forgiven,  she  was  the  first ;  of 
all  the  tears  since  ruefully  shed  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  of 
suffering,  hers  were  the  first ;  of  all  the  hopes  which,  the  Res- 
urrection has  since  diffused  through  nations  and  generations  of 
men,  hers  were  the  first.  To  her  sorrowful  image  how  many 
have  looked  up  through  tears,  and  blessed  the  pardoning  grace 
of  which  she  was  the  symbol  —  or  rather  the  impersonation ! 
Of  the  female  saints,  some  were  the  chosen  patrons  of  cer- 
tain virtues,  others  of  certain  vocations ;  but  the  accepted  and 
glorified  penitent  threw  her  mantle  over  all,  and  more  espe- 
cially over  those  of  her  own  sex  who,  having  gone  astray,  were 
recalled  from  error  and  from  shame,  and  laid  down  their 
wrongs,  their  sorrows,  and  their  sins  in  trembling  humility  at 
the  feet  of  the  Redeemer. 

Nor  is  it  only  the  popularity  of  Mary   Magdalene  as  the 
representative  and  the  patroness  of  repentant  sinners  which  has 

1  [Rendered  into  English:  One  must  not  rashly  believe  anything  the  Gospel 
does  not  tell,  and  not  make  religion  follow  blindly  every  popular  opinion;  faith 
is  too  precious  to  be  so  wasted ;  but  charity  is  even  more  precious,  and  the  im- 
portant thing  is  to  avoid  disputes  which  can  in  any  way  injure  it.] 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  341 

multiplied  her  image  through  all  Christendom.     As  a  subject 

for  painting, 

Whether  the  fair  one  sinner  it  or  saint  it, 

it  is  rich  in  picturesque  capabilities.  It  combines  all  that 
can  inspire  with  all  that  can  chasten  the  fancy ;  yet,  when  we 
review  what  has  been  done,  how  inadequate  the  result !  In 
no  class  of  subjects  have  the  mistakes  of  the  painters,  even 
the  most  distinguished,  been  so  conspicuous  as  in  the  represen- 
tation of  the  penitent  Magdalene ;  and  it  must  be  allowed 
that,  with  all  its  advantages  and  attractions,  it  is  a  subject  full 
of  perils  and  difficulties.  Where  the  penitent  prevails,  the 
saint  appears  degraded ;  where  the  wasted,  unclad  form  is  seen 
attenuated  by  vigils  and  exposed  in  haggard  unseemliness,  it 
is  a  violation  of  that  first  great  rule  of  Art  which  forbids  the 
repulsive  and  the  painful.  And  herein  lies  the  fault  of  the 
earlier  schools,  and  particularly  of  the  old  Greek  *and  German 
painters,  —  their  matter-of-fact  ugliness  would  be  intolerable, 
if  not  redeemed  by  the  intention  and  sentiment.  On  the 
other  hand,  where  sensual  beauty  has  obviously  been  the  para- 
mount idea  in  the  artist's  work,  defeating  its  holiest  purpose 
and  perverting  its  high  significance,  the  violation  of  the  moral 
sentiment  is  yet  more  revolting.  This  is  especially  the  fault 
of  the  later  painters,  more  particularly  of  the  schools  of  Venice 
and  Bologna :  while  the  French  painters  are  yet  worse,  adding 
affectation  to  licentiousness  of  sentiment;  the  Abbd  Me'ry 
exclaims  with  reasonable  and  pious  indignation  against  that 
"  air  de  yalanterie  "  which  in  his  time  was  regarded  as  char- 
acteristic of  Mary  Magdalene.  The  "  larmoyantes  "  penitents 
of  Greuze  —  Magdalenes  a  la  Pompadour  —  are  more  objec- 
tionable to  my  taste  than  those  of  Rubens. 

I  shall  give  the  legend  of  the  Magdalene  here  as  it  was 
accepted  by  the  people  and  embodied  by  the  arts  of  the  middle 
ages,  setting  aside  those  Eastern  traditions  which  represent  the 
Mary  of  Bethany  and  the  Magdalene  as  distinct  personages, 
and  place  the  death  and  burial-place  of  Mary  Magdalene  at 
Ephesus.  Our  business  is  with  the  Western  legend,  which 
has  been  the  authority  for  Western  Art.  This  legend,  besides 
attributing  to  one  individual,  and  blending  into  one  narrative, 
the  very  few  scattered  notices  in  the  Gospels,  has  added  some 
other  incidents,  inconceivably  wild  and  incredible,  leaving  her, 


342  ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE 

however,  the  invariable  attributes   of  the  frail  loving  woman, 
the  sorrowing  penitent,  and  the  devout  enthusiastic  saint. 

Mary  Magdalene  was  of  the  district  of  Magdala,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  where  stood  her  castle,  called 
Magdalon  ;  she  was  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and  of  Martha,  and 
they  were  the  children  of  parents  reputed  noble,  or,  as  some 
say,  of  royal  race.  On  the  death  of  their  father,  Syrus,  they 
inherited  vast  riches  and  possessions  in  land,  which  were 
equally  divided  between  them.  Lazarus  betook  himself  to 
the  military  life ;  Martha  ruled  her  possessions  with  great  dis- 
cretion, and  was  a  model  of  virtue  and  propriety,  —  perhaps  a 
little  too  much  addicted  to  worldly  cares ;  Mary,  on  the  con- 
trary, abandoned  herself  to  luxurious  pleasures,  and  became 
at  length  so  notorious  for  her  dissolute  life,  that  she  was  known 
through  all  the  country  round  only  as  "  THE  SINNER."  Her 
discreet  sistftr,  Martha,  frequently  rebuked  her  for  these  disor- 
ders, and  at  length  persuaded  her  to  listen  to  the  exhortations 
of  Jesus,  through  which  her  heart  was  touched  and  converted. 
The  seven  demons  which  possessed  her,  and  which  were  ex- 
pelled by  the  power  of  the  Lord,  were  the  seven  deadly  sins 
to  whicji  she  was  given  over  before  her  conversion.  On  one 
occasion  Martha  entertained  the  Saviour  in  her  house,  and, 
being  anxious  to  feast  Him  worthily,  she  was  "  cumbered  with 
much  serving."  Mary,  meanwhile,  sat  at  the  feet  of  Jesus, 
and  heard  His  words,  which  completed  the  good  work  of  her 
conversion  ;  and  when,  some  time  afterwards,  He  supped  in  the 
house  of  Simon  the  Pharisee,  she  followed  Him  thither,  "  and 
she  brought  an  alabaster  box  of  ointment,  and  began  to  wash 
His  feet  with  tears,  and  did  wipe  them  with  the  hair  of  her 
head,  and  kissed  His  feet,  and  anointed  them  with  ointment ; 
and  He  said  unto  her,  Thy  sins  are  forgiven."  She  became 
afterwards  one  of  the  most  devoted  of  His  followers  ;  "  minis- 
tered to  Him  of  her  substance  ;  "  attended  Him  to  Calvary,  and 
stood  weeping  at  the  foot  of  the  cross.  She,  with  the  other 
Mary,  watched  by  His  tomb,  and  was  the  first  to  whom  He 
appeared  after  the  resurrection ;  her  unfaltering  faith,  mingled 
as  it  was  with  the  intensest  grief  and  love,  obtained  for  her 
this  peculiar  mark  of  favor.  It  is  assumed  by  several  com- 
mentators that  our  Saviour  appeared  first  to  Mary  Magda- 
lene, because  she,  of  all  those  whom  He  had  left  on  earth, 
had  most  need  of  consolation,  —  "The  disciples  tcent  away 


ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE  343 

to  their  own  home ;  but  Mary  stood  ivithout  the  sepulchre, 
weeping" 

Thus  far  the  notices  in  the  Gospel  and  the  suggestions  of 
commentators  :  the  old  ProveiiQal  legend  then  continues  the 
story.  After  the  ascension,  Lazarus  with  his  two  sisters, 
Martha  and  Mary,  with  Maximin,  one  of  the  seventy-two 
disciples,  from  whom  they  had  received  baptism,  Cedon,  the 
blind  man  whom  our  Saviour  had  restored  to  sight,  and  Mar- 
cella,  the  handmaiden  who  attended  on  the  two  sisters,  were 
by  the  heathen  set  adrift  in  a  vessel  without  sails,  oars,  or 
rudder ;  but,  guided  by  Providence,  they  were  safely  borne 
over  the  sea  till  they  landed  in  a  certain  harbor  which  proved 
to  be  Marseilles,  in  the  country  now  called  France.  The 
people  of  the  land  were  pagans,  and  refused  to  give  the  holy 
pilgrims  food  or  shelter ;  so  they  were  fain  to  take  refuge 
under  the  porch  of  a  temple,  and  Mary  Magdalene  preached 
to  the  people,  reproaching  them  for  their  senseless  worship  of 
dumb  idols ;  and  though  at  first  they  would  not  listen,  yet 
being  after  a  time  convinced  by  her  eloquence,  and  by  the 
miracles  performed  by  her  and  by  her  sister,  they  were  con- 
verted and  baptized.  And  Lazarus  became,  after  the  death  of 
the  good  Maximin,  the  first  bishop  of  Marseilles. 

These  things  being  accomplished,  Mary  Magdalene  retired 
to  a  desert  not  far  from  the  city.  It  was  a  frightful  barren 
wilderness,  in  the  midst  of  horrid  rocks  and  caves ;  and  here 
for  thirty  years  she  devoted  herself  to  solitary  penance  for  the 
sins  of  her  past  life,  which  she  had  never  ceased  to  bewail  bit- 
terly. During  this  long  seclusion  she  was  never  seen  or 
heard  of,  and  it  was  supposed  that  she  was  dead.  She  fasted 
so  rigorously  that,  but  for  the  occasional  visits  of  the  angels, 
and  the  comfort  bestowed  by  celestial  visions,  sl^e  must  have 
perished.  Every  day  during  the  last  years  of  her  penance 
the  angels  came  down  from  heaven  and  carried  her  up  in  their 
arms  into  regions  where  she  was  ravished  by  the  sounds  of 
unearthly  harmony,  and  beheld  the  glory  and  the  joy  pre- 
pared for  the  sinner  that  repenteth.  One  day  a  certain  her- 
mit, who  dwelt  in  a  cell  on  one  of  those  wild  mountains, 
having  wandered  farther  than  usual  from  his  home,  beheld 
this  wondrous  vision  —  the  Magdalene  in  the  arms  of  ascend- 
ing angels,  who  were  singing  songs  of  triumph  as  they  bore 


344  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

her  upwards  ;  and  the  hermit,  when  he  had  a  little  recovered 
from  his  amazement,  returned  to  the  city  of  Marseilles,  and 
reported  what  he  had  seen.  According  to  some  of  the  legends, 
Mary  Magdalene  died  within  the  walls  of  the  Christian 
church,  after  receiving  the  sacrament  from  the  hand  of  St. 
Maximin  ;  but  the  more  popular  accounts  represent  her  as  dy- 
ing in  her  solitude,  while  angels  watched  over  and  ministered 
to  her. 

The  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  an  era  of  religious 
excitement  all  over  the  south  of  Europe.  A  sudden  fit  of 
penitence — "una  subita  compunzione,"  as  an  Italian  author 
calls  it  —  seized  all  hearts ;  relics,  and  pilgrimages,  and  pen- 
ances, and  monastic  ordinances  filled  all  minds.  About  this 
period,  certain  remains,  supposed  to  be  those  of  Mary  Magda- 
lene and  Lazarus,  were  discovered  at  a  place  since  called  St. 
Maximin,  about  twenty  miles  north  of  Toulon.  The  discov- 
ery strongly  excited  the  devotion  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
people  ;  and  a  church  was  founded  on  the  spot  by  Charles, 
Count  of  Provence  (the  brother  of  St.  Louis),  as  early  as 
1279.  A  few  years  afterwards,  this  prince  was  vanquished 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  king  of  Aragon,  and  when  at  length 
set  free  after  a  long  captivity,  he  ascribed  his  deliverance  par- 
ticularly to  the  intercession  of  his  chosen  patroness,  Mary 
Magdalene.  This  incident  greatly  extended  her  fame  as  a 
saint  of  power ;  and  from  this  time  we  may  date  her  popular- 
ity, and  those  sculptural  and  pictorial  representations  of  her, 
under  various  aspects,  which,  from  the  fourteenth  century  to 
the  present  time,  have  so  multiplied  that  scarcely  any  Catho- 
lic place  of  worship  is  to  be  found  without  her  image.  In 
fact,  it  is  difficult  for  us,  in  these  days,  to  conceive,  far  more 
difficult  to  sympathize  with,  the  passionate  admiration  and  de- 
votion with  which  she  was  regarded  by  her  votaries  in  the 
middle  ages.  The  imputed  sinfulness-of  her  life  only  brought 
her  nearer  to  them.  Those  who  did  not  dare  to  lift  up  their 
eyes  to  the  more  saintly  models  of  purity  and  holiness  —  to 
the  martyrs  who  had  suffered  in  the  cause  of  chastity  —  took 
courage  to  invoke  her  intercession.  The  extravagant  titles 
bestowed  upon  her  in  the  middle  ages  —  "  Vamante  de  Jesus- 
Christ"  "  la  bien-aimee  du  Sauveur"  "  la  tres-saincte  de- 
moiselle pecheresse"  —  and  others  which  I  should  hardly 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  345 

dare  to  transcribe,  show  the  spirit  in  which  she  was  wor- 
shipped, particularly  in  the  south  of  France,  and  the  kind  of 
chivalrous  sentiment  which  mingled  with  the  devotion  of  her 
adorers.  I  found  in  an  old  French  sermon  a  eulogium  of 
Mary  Magdalene,  which  for  its  eloquence  and  ingenuity  seems 
to  me  without  a  parallel.  The  preacher,  while  acknowledg- 
ing the  excesses  which  brought  her  a  penitent  to  the  feet  of 
Christ,  is  perfectly  scandalized  that  she  should  be  put  on  a 
par  with  common  sinners  of  the  same  class,  and  that  on  the 
faith  of  a  passage  in  St.  Luke,  "  on  a  osd  fle'trir  une  des  plus 
belles  Times  qui  soient  jamais  sorties  des  mains  du  Oe'ateur !  " 
He  rather  glorifies  her  as  a  kind  of  Aspasia,  to  whom,  indeed, 
he'  in  a  manner  compares  her.1 


1  After  describing,  in  glowing  terms,  her  splendid  position  in  the  world,  her 
illustrious  rank,  her  understanding,  "  droit, solide,  et  delicat,"  her  "grace,"'  her 
"esprit,"  her  wondrous  beauty,  particularly  her  superb  hair,  " cultive  avec  tant 
de  soin,  arrange  avec  tant  d'art,  and  lamenting  that  a  creature  thus  noblv 
gifted  should  have  beeg  cast  away  upon  the  same  rock  which  had  shipwrecked 
the  greatest,  the  most  illustrious,  of  her  "  compatriotes,  le  fort  Samson,  le  preux 
David,  le  sage  Salomon,"  he  goes  on  to  describe,  with  real  eloquence,  and  in 
a  less  offensive  strain  of  panegyric,  her  devotion  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  her 
pious  visit  to  the  tomb  by  break  of  day,  braving  the  fury  of  the  guards,  the 
cruelty  of  the  Jews,  and  taking  the  place  of  the  apostles,  who  were  dispersed  or 
fled.  And  thus  he  winds  up  with  a  moral,  most  extraordinary  when  we  recol- 
lect that  it  was  preached  from  a  pulpit  by  a  grave  doctor  in  theology:  — 

"Jeunes  personnes  qui  vivez  encore  dans  I'innocence!  apprenez  done  de  la 
Madeleine  combien  grands  sont  les  perils  de  la  jeunesse,  de  la  beaute",  de  tons 
les  dons  purement  naturels  ;  souvenez-vous  que  le  desir  excessif  de  plaire  est 
toujours  dangereux,  rarement  innocent,  et  qu'il  est  bien  difficile  de  donner 
beaticoup  de  sentiments,  sans  en  prendre  soi-meme.  A  la  vue  des  faiblesses  de 
la  jeune  Israelite,  comprenez  de  quelle  importance  est,  pour  vous,  la  garde  de 
votre  coeur  ;  et  a  quels  desordres  il  vous  expose,  si  vous  ne  vous  accoutumez  a 
le  contrarier  sans  cesse,  en  tous  ses  penchants. 

"Femmes  mondaines,  et  peut-etre  voluptueuses!  apprenez  de  la  Madeleine 
a  revenir  de  vos  ecarts;  ils  onte'te',  dans  vous,  le  fruit  de  la  faiblesse  humaine  ; 
que  votre  retour  soil  le  fruit  de  votre  correspondance  a  la  grace.  Et  pourriez- 
vous  ou  vous  proposer  un  modele  plus  digne  d'etre  suivi  que  celui  que  vous 
presente  Madeleine,  ou  trouver  ailleurs  un  motif  plus  puissant  de  le  suivre  ? 

"  Et  vous  qui,  fieres  d'une  reserve  que  vous  ne  devez  peut-etre  qu'a  vfctre 
insensibilite,  vous  en  faites  un  rempart,  a  1'abri  duquel  vous  croyez  pouvoir 
mepriser  toute  la  terre,  et  dont  la  mondanite  de  Madeleine  elle-meme  a  peut-etre 
scandalise  la  precieuse  vertu!  femmes  plus  values  que  sages!  apprenez  de 
notre  Sainte,  qu'il  n'y  a  que  la  grace  de  Dieu  et  une  attention  continuelle  sur 
nous-memes  qui  puissent  nous  aider  constamment  contre  la  pen^te  qui  nous  pre- 
cipite  vers  le  mal,  et  craignez  qu'on  ne  puisse  vous  dire,  a  son  sujet,  ce  que 
Saint  Augustin  disait  a  une  devote  de  votre  caractere,  pleine  d'elle-meme  et 
medisante  :  '  Plut  a  Dieu  que  vous  eussiez  dunne  dans  les  memes  exces  dont 


346  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

The  traditional  scene  of  the  penance  of  the  Magdalene,  a 
wild  spot  between  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  is  the  site  of  a  fa- 
mous convent  called  La  Sainte  Beaume  (which  in  the  Proven- 
(jal  tongue  signifies  Holy  Cave),  formerly  a  much  frequented 
place  of  pilgrimage.  It  is  built  on  the  verge  of  a  formidable 
precipice  ;  near  it  is  the  grotto  in  which  the  saint  resided  ; 
and  to  Mount  Pilon,  a  rocky  point  about  six  hundred  feet 
above  the  grotto,  the  angels  bore  her  seven  times  a  day  to  pray. 
This  convent  was  destroyed  and  pillaged  at  the  commencement 
of  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  filled  with  relics  and  works 
of  art  referring  to  the  life  and  the  worship  of  the  Magdalene. 

But  the  most  sumptuous  fane  ever  erected  to  her  special 
honor  is  that  which,  of  late  years,  has  arisen  in  the  city  of 
Paris.  The  church,  or  rather  the  temple,  of  La  Madeleine  stands 
an  excelling  monument,  if  not  of  modern  piety,  at  least  of 
modern  Art.  It  is  built  on  the  model  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
at  Athens  :  — 

That  noble  type  is  realized  again 

In  perfect  form ;  and  dedicate  —  to  whom? 

vous  croyez  si  volontiers  les  autres  capables!  vous  seriez  moins  e'loigne'e  du 
royaume  de  Dieu  ;  du  moins  vous  auriez  de  1'humanite!  '  " 

[Young  people  still  living  in  ignorance  of  sin!  learn  of  the  Magdalene  how 
great  are  the  perils  of  youth,  of  beauty,  of  all  purely  natural  gifte;  remember 
that  the  excessive  desire  to  please  is  always  dangerous,  rarely  innocent,  and  that 
it  is  very  difficult  to  arouse  passion  without  feeling  it  oneself.  Consider  the 
failings  of  the  young  Jewess,  and  learn  how  important  to  you  is  the  watch  over 
your  heart;  and  to  what  misfortunes  you  are  exposed  if  you  do  not  accustom 
yourselves  to  oppose  it  constantly  in  all  its  desires. 

Worldly,  and  perhaps  sensual  women,  learn  of  the  Magdalene  to  turn  from 
your  errors;  they  have  been  in  you  the  fruit  of  human  weakness;  may  your 
repentance  be  the  fruit  of  feeling  the.  grace  of  God.  And  could  you  propose  a 
more  worthy  model  to  follow  than  that  which  the  Magdalene  offers  you,  or  rind 
elsewhere  a  more  powerful  motive  for  following  itV 

And  you  who,  proud  of  a  reserve  which  you  owe  perhaps  only  to  your  cold 
nature,  make  it  a  barrier  from  whose  shelter  you  think  you  can  despise  all  the 
earth,  and  whose  precious  vrrtues  the  worldliness  of  the  Magdalene  herself  has 
perhaps  scandalized!  women,  more  vain  than  wise!  learn  of  our  saint  that  it 
is  only  the  grace  of  God  and  a  continual  watch  over  ourselves  which  can  restrain  us 
constantly  from  the  impulse  which  urges  us  towards  evil;  and  fear,  lest  some 
one  sa}7  to  you  what  Saint  Augustine  said  to  a  church-going  woman  of  your 
character,  full  of  herself  and  despising  others  :  "  Would  to  God  that  you  had 
indulged  in  the  same  excesses  of  which  you  so  readily  think  others  capable ! 
You  would  be  nearer  the  Kingdom  of  God  ;  }rou  would  at  least  have  more  hu- 
manity!  "]  * 

Le  Brim's  Magdalene  is  just  the  same  Magdalene  described  by  this  preacher; 
both  one  and  the  other  are  as  like  the  Magdalene  of  Scripture  as  Leo  X. 
was  like  St.  Peter. 


ST.    MARY    MAGDALENE  347 

To  a  poor  Syrian  girl  of  lowliest  name  — 
A  haples9^reature,  pitiful  and  frail, 
As  ever  wore  her  life  in  sin  and  shame ! 

R.  M.  MlLNES. 

The  saint,  whether  she  were  "  the  lowly  Syrian  girl,"  or 
the  "Princess  of  Magdala,"  would  be  equally  astonished  to 
behold  herself  thus  honored  with  a  sort  of  pagan  magnificence 
in  the  midst  of  a  luxurious  capital,  and  by  a  people  more 
remarkable  for  scoffing  than  for  praying.  Even  in  the  suc- 
cessive vicissitudes  of  this  splendid  edifice  there  is  something 
strange.  That  which  is  now  the  temple  of  the  lowly  penitent, 
was  a  few  years  ago  Le  Temple  de  la  Gloire. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  those  characteristic  representations  with 
which  painting  and  sculpture  have  made  us  familiar,  and  for 
which  both  Scripture  and  legendary  tradition  have  furnished 
the  authority  and  the  groundwork.  These  are  so  numerous 
and  so  infinitely  varied,  that  I  find  it  necessary  here,  as  in 
the  case  of  St.  Jerome,  to  arrange  them  under  several  heads. 

The  devotional  representations  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.  1.  Those  which  represent  the  Magdalene  as  patron 
saint.  2.  Those  which  represent  her  penitence  in  the  desert. 

The  historical  subjects  may  also  be  divided  into  two  classes. 
1.  Those  scenes  from  Gospel  story  in  which  Mary  Magdalene 
figures  as  a  chief  or  conspicuous  personage.  2.  The  scenes 
taken  from  her  legendary  life. 

In  all  these  subjects  the  accompanying  attribute  is  the  ala- 
baster box  of  ointment,  which  has  a  double  significance ;  it 
may  be  the  perfume  which  she  poured  over  the  feet  of  the 
Saviour,  or  the  balm  and  spices  which  she  had  prepared  to 
anoint  his  body.  Sometimes  she  carries  it  in  her  hand,  some- 
times it  stands  at  her  feet,  or  near  her;  frequently,  in  later 
pictures,  it  is  borne  by  an  attendant  angel.  The  shape  varies 
with  the  fancy  of  the  artist ;  it  is  a  small  vase,  a  casket,  a 
box,  a  cup  with  a  cover ;  more  or  less  ornamented,  more  or 
less  graceful  in  form ;  but  always  there  —  the  symbol  at  once 
of  her  conversion  and  her  love,  and  so  peculiar  that  it  can 
leave  no  doubt  of  her  identity. 

Pier  drapery  in  the  ancient  pictures  is  usually  red,  to  express 
the  fervor  of  her  love.  In  modern  representations,  and  where 
she  figures  as  penitent,  it  is  either  blue  or  violet,  —  violet,  the 
color  of  mourning  and  penitence ;  blue,  the  color  of  constancy. 


348  ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE 

To  express  both  the  love  and  the  sorrow,  she  sometimes  wears 
a  violet-colored  tunic  and  a  red  mantle.  The  luxuriant  hair 
ought  to  be  fair  or  golden.  Dark-haired  Magdalenes,  as  far  as 
I  can  remember,  belong  exclusively  to  the  Spanish  school. 

1.  When  exhibited  to  us  as  the  patron  saint  of  repentant 
sinners,  Mary  Magdalene  is  sometimes  a  thin  wasted  figure, 
with  long  dishevelled  hair  of  a  pale  golden  hue,  falling  over 
her  shoulders  almost  to  the  ground ;  sometimes  a  skin  or  a 
piece  of  linen  is  tied  round  her  loins,  but  not  seldom  her  sole 
drapery  is  her  long  redundant  hair.  The  most  ancient  single 
figure  of  this  character  to  which  I  can  refer  is  an  old  picture 
in  the  Byzantine  manner,  as  old,  perhaps,  as  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  now  in  the  Academy  at  Florence.  She  is  stand- 
ing as  patroness,  covered  only  by  her  long  hair,  which  falls  in 
dark  brown  masses  to  her  feet ;  the  color,  I  imagine,  was  ori- 
ginally much  lighter.  She  is  a  meagre,  haggard,  grim-looking 
figure,  and  holds  in  her  hand  a  scroll,  on  which  is  inscribed  in 
ancient  Gothic  letters  — 

Jfte  Despectetetf 
l">os  qui  peccare  sofitis 
<Cj:emplo  meo 
Dos  reparate  JDco.1 

Rude  and  unattractive  as  is  this  specimen  of  ancient  Art,  I 
could  not  look  at  it  without  thinking  how  often  it  must  have 
spoken  hope  and  peace  to  the  soul  of  the  trembling  sinner,  in 
days  when  it  hung,  not  in  a  picture  gallery  to  be  criticised, 
but  in  a  shrine  to  be  worshipped.  Around  this  figure,  in  the 
manner  of  the  old  altar-pieces,  are  six  small  square  compart- 
ments containing  scenes  from  her  life. 

The  famous  statue  carved  in  wood  by  Donatello,  in  point  of 
character,  may  be  referred  to  this  class  of  subjects :  she  stands 
over  her  altar  in  the  Baptistery  at  Florence,  with  clasped 
hands,  the  head  raised  in  prayer ;  the  form  is  very  expressive 
of  wasting  grief  and  penance,  but  too  meagre  for  beauty. 
"Egli  la  voile  specchio  alle  penitenti,  non  incitamento  alia 
cupidizia  degli  sguardi,  come  avenne  ad  altri  artisti,"  says 
Cicognara ;  and,  allowing  that  beauty  has  been  sacrificed  to 
expression,  he  adds,  "  but  if  Donatello  had  done  all,  what 

1  The  original  Latin  distich  runs  thus:  — 

Ne  desperetis  vos  qui  peccare  soletis, 
Exemploque  meo  vos  reparate  Deo. 


ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE  349 

would  have  remained  for  Canova  ?  "  That  which  remained 
for  Canova  to  do,  he  has  done  [1796]  ;  he  has  made  her  as 
lovely  as  possible,  and  he  has  dramatized  the  sentiment :  she 
is  more  the  penitent  than  the  patron  saint.  The  display  of 
the  beautiful  limbs  is  chastened  by  the  humility  of  the  attitude 
—  half  kneeling,  half  prostrate ;  by  the  expression  of  the 


Magdalene  (Canova) 

drooping  head  —  "  all  sorrow's  softness  charmed  from  its  de- 
spair." Her  eyes  are  fixed  on  the  cross  which  lies  extended 
on  her  knees ;  and  she  weeps  —  not  so  much  her  own  past 
sins,  as  the  sacrifice  it  has  cost  to  redeem  them.  This  is  the 
prevailing  sentiment,  or,  as  the  Germans  would  call  it,  the 
motive  of  the  representation,  to  which  I  should  feel  inclined 
to  object  as  deficient  in  dignity  and  severity,  and  bordering 
too  much  on  the  genre  and  dramatic  style ;  but  the  execution 
is  almost  faultless.  Very  beautiful  is  another  modern  statue 
of  the  penitent  Magdalene,  executed  in  marble  for  the  Count 


350  ST.    MARY    MAGDALENE 

d'Espagtiac,  by  M.  Henri  de  Triqueti.  She  is  half  seated, 
half  reclining  on  a  fragment  of  rock,  and  pressing  to  her  bosom 
a  crown  of  thorns,  at  once  the  mourner  and  the  penitent :  the 
sorrow  is  not  for  herself  alone. 

But,  in  her  character  of  patron  saint,  Mary  Magdalene  was 
not  always  represented  with  the  squalid  or  pathetic  attributes 
of  humiliation  and  penance.  She  became  idealized  as  a  noble 
dignified  creature  bearing  no  traces  of  sin  or  of  sorrow  on  her 
beautiful  face ;  her  luxuriant  hair  bound  in  tresses  round  her 
head ;  her  drapery  rich  and  ample ;  the  vase  of  ointment  in 
her  hand  or  at  her  feet,  or  borne  by  an  angel  near  her.  Not 
unfrequently  she  is  attired  with  the  utmost  magnificence, 
either  in  reference  to  her  former  state  of  worldly  prosperity,  or 
rather,  perhaps,  that  with  the  older  painters,  particularly  those 
of  the  German  school,  it  was  a  common  custom  to  clothe  all 
the  ideal  figures  of  female  saints  in  rich  habits.  In  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  such  representations  of  the  Mag- 
dalene are  usual  both  in  Italian  and  German  Art.  A  beautiful 
instance  may  be  seen  in  a  picture  by  Signorelli,  at  Orvieto, 
where  she  is  standing  in  a  landscape,  her  head  uncovered,  and 
the  rich  golden  hair  partly  braided,  partly  flowing  over  her 
shoulders  ;  she  wears  a  magnificent  tunic  embroidered  with 
gold,  over  it  a  flowing  mantle  descending  to  her  feet ;  she  holds 
the  vase  with  her  left  hand,  and  points  to  it  with  her  right. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  saintly  aureole  encircling  her  head,  this 
figure,  and  others  similar  to  it,  might  be  mistaken  for  Pandora. 
See,  for  example,  the  famous  print  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden,  where 
she  stands  on  clouds  with  an  embroidered  coif  and  flowing 
mantle,  holding  the  vase  in  her  left  hand,  and  lifting  the  cover 
with  her  right ;  and  in  the  half  length-  by  Leonardo,  or  one 
of  his  school.  The  want  of  a  religious  sentiment  gives  such 
figures  a  very  heathen  and  Pandora  look,  so  that  the  aureole 
alone  fixes  the  identity.  This  is  not  the  case  with  a  noble 
Magdalene  by  Denis  Calvaert,  in  the  Manfrini  Palace  at  Venice. 
She  is  standing  in  a  fine  bold  landscape  ;  one  hand  sustains 
her  ample  crimson  drapery,  the  other  holds  her  vase  ;  her  fair 
hair  falls  in  masses  over  her  shoulders,  and  she  looks  down  on 
her  worshippers  with  a  serious  dignified  compassion.  This  is 
one  of  the  finest  pictures  of  the .  later  Bologna  school,  finer 
and  truer  in  sentiment  than  any  of  the  Caracci  and  Guido 
Magdalenes. 


ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE 


351 


In  this  her  wholly 
divine  and  ideal  charac- 
ter of  saint  and  interces- 
sor, Mary  Magdalene  is 
often  most  beautifully 
introduced  as  standing 
near  the  throne  of  the 
Virgin,  or  as  grouped 
with  other  saints.  In 
two  of  the  most  famous 
pictures  in  the  world 
she  is  thus  represented. 
In  the  St.  Cecilia  of 
Raphael,  she  stands  on 
the  left,  St.  Paul  being 
on  the  right  of  the  prin- 
cipal figure ;  they  are 
here  significant  of  the 
conversion  of  the  man 
through  power,  of  the 
woman  through  love, 
from  a  state  of  reproba- 
tion to  a  state  of  recon- 
cilement and  grace.  St. 
Paul  leans  in  deep  medi- 
tation on  his  sword.  Mary  Magdalene  is  habited  in  ample 
drapery  of  blue  and  violet,  which  she  sustains  with  one  hand, 
and  bears  the  vase  in  the  other.  She  looks  out  of  the  picture 
with  a  benign  countenance  and  a  particularly  graceful  turn  of 
the  head.  Raphael's  original  design  for  this  picture  (engraved 
by  Marc  Antonio)  is,  however,  preferable  in  the  sentiment 
given  to  the  Magdalene  :  she  does  not  look  out  of  the  picture, 
but  she  looks  up  :  she  also  hears  the  divine  music  which  has 
ravished  St.  Cecilia.  In  the  picture  she  is  either  unconscious 
or  inattentive.1 

In  the  not  less  celebrated  St.  Jerome  of  Correggio  [Parma 
Gall.],  she  is  on  the  left  of  the  Madonna,  bending  down  with 
an  expression  of  the  deepest  adoration  to  kiss  the  feet  of  the 
infant  Christ,  while  an  angel  behind  holds  up  the  vase  of 

1  [For  facsimiles  of  the  original  design  and  of  the  completed  picture  in  the 
Bologna  Gallery,  see  Miintz,  Raphuel,  translated  by  Armstrong,  p.  526.] 


Magdalene  (Lucas  van  Leyden) 


352  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

ointment :  thus  recalling  to  our  minds,  and  shadowing  forth 
in  the  most  poetical  manner,  that  memorable  act  of  love  and 
homage  rendered  at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour.  Parmigiano  has 
represented  her,  in  a  Madonna  picture,  as  standing  on  one  side, 
and  the  prophet  Isaiah  on  the  other.  Lord  Ashburton  has  a 
fine  picture  by  Correggio,  in  which  we  have  the  same  ideal 
representation :  she  is  here  grouped  with  St.  Peter,  St.  Mar- 
garet, and  St.  Leonardo. 

There  are  two  classes  of  subjects  in  which  Mary  Magdalen'e 
is  richly  habited,  and  which  must  be  carefully  distinguished ; 
those  above  described,  in  which  she  figures  as  patron  saint,  and 
those  which  represent  her  before  her  conversion,  as  the  votary 
of  luxury  and  pleasure.  In  the  same  manner  we  must  be 
careful  to  distinguish  those  figures  of  the  penitent  Magdalene 
which  are  wholly  devotional  in  character  and  intention,  and 
which  have  been  described  in  the  first  class,  from  those  which 
represent  her  in  the  act  of  doing  penance,  and  which  are 
rather  dramatic  and  sentimental  than  devotional. 

2.  The  penance  of  the  Magdalene  is  a  subject  which  has 
become,  like  the  penance  of  St.  Jerome,  a  symbol  of  Christian 
penitence,  but  still  more  endeared  to  the  popular  imagination 
by  more  affecting  and  attractive  associations,  and  even  more 
eminently  picturesque,  —  so  tempting  to  the  artists,  that  by 
their  own  predilection  for  it  they  have  assisted  in  making  it 
universal.  In  the  display  of  luxuriant  female  forms,  shadowed 
(not  hidden)  by  redundant  fair  hair,  and  flung  in  all  the 
abandon  of  solitude,  amid  the  depth  of  leafy  recesses,  or 
relieved  by  the  dark  umbrageous  rocks  ;  in  the  association  of 
love  and  beauty  with  the  symbols  of  death  and  sorrow  and 
utter  humiliation  ;  the  painters  had  ample  scope,  ample  ma- 
terial, for  the  exercise  of  their  imagination,  and  the  display 
of  their  skill :  and  what  has  been  the  result  ?  They  have 
abused  these  capabilities  even  to  license ;  they  have  ex- 
hausted the  resources  of  Art  in  the  attempt  to  vary  the  de- 
lineation ;  and  yet  how  seldom  has  the  ideal  of  this  most 
exquisite  subject  been  —  I  will  not  say  realized  —  but  even 
approached  ?  We  have  Magdalenes  who  look  as  if  they 
never  could  have  sinned,  and  others  who  look  as  if  they  never 
could  have  repented ;  we  have  Venetian  Magdalenes  with  the 
air  of  courtesans,  and  Florentine  Magdalenes  with  the  air  of 


MADONNA  WITH  MAGDALENE  AND  ST.  JEROME  (CORREGGIO) 


ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE  353 

Ariadnes  ;  and  Bolognese  Magdalenes  like  sentimental  Niobes  ; 
and  French  Magdalenes,  moitie  galantes,  moitie  devotes  ;  and 
Dutch  Magdalenes,  who  wring  their  hands  like  repentant 
washerwomen.  The  Magdalenes  of  Rubens  remind  us  of 
nothing  so  much  as  of  the  "  unfortunate  Miss  Bailey ; "  and 
the  Magdalenes  of  Vandyck  are  fine  ladies  who  have  turned 
Methodists.  But  Mary  Magdalene,  such  as  we  have  conceived 
her,  mournful  yet  hopeful,  tender  yet  dignified,  worn  with 
grief  and  fasting  yet  radiant  with  the  glow  of  love  and  faith, 
and  clothed  with  the  beauty  of  holiness,  is  an  ideal  which 
painting  has  not  yet  realized.  Is  it  beyond  the  reach  of 
Art  ?  We  might  have  answered  this  question,  had  Raphael 
attempted  it ;  but  he  has  not.  His  Magdalene  at  the  feet 
of  Christ  is  yet  unforgiven  —  the  forlorn  castaway,  not  the 
devout  penitent. 

The  Magdalene  doing  penance  in  her  rocky  desert  first  be- 
came a  popular  subject  in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  in  the  seven- 
teenth it  was  at  the  height  of  favor.  There  are  two  distinct 
versions  of  the  subject,  infinitely  varied  as  to  detail  and  senti- 
ment :  either  she  is  represented  as  bewailing  her  sins,  or  as 
reconciled  to  Heaven. 

In  the  former  treatment  she  lies  prostrate  on  the  earth,  or 
she  is  standing  or  kneeling  at  the  entrance  of  the  cave  (in 
some  of  the  old  illuminated  missals  the  upper  part  of  her  body 
is  seen  emerging  from  a  cave  or  rather  a  hole  in  the  ground), 
the  hands  clasped,  or  extended  towards  heaven ;  the  eyes 
streaming  with  tears  ;  the  long  yellow  hair  flowing  over  her 
shoulders.  The  crucifix,  the  skull,  and  sometimes  the  scourge, 
are  introduced  as  emblems  of  faith,  mortality,  and  penance  ; 
weeping  angels  present  a  crown  of  thorns. 

In  the  latter  treatment  she  is  reading  or  meditating ;  the 
expression  is  serene  or  hopeful ;  a  book  lies  beside  the  skull ; 
angels  present  the  palm,  or  scatter  flowers  ;  a  vision  of  glory 
is  seen  in  the  skies. 

The  alabaster  box  is  in  all  cases  the  indispensable  attribute. 
The  eyes  are  usually  raised,  if  not  in  grief,  in  supplication  or 
in  aspiration.  The  "  uplifted  eye  "  as  well  as  the  "  loose  hair  " 
became  a  characteristic ;  but  there  are  some  exceptions.  The 
conception  of  character  and  situation,  which  was  at  first  sim- 
ple, became  more  arid  more  picturesque,  and  at  length  theatri- 
cal —  a  mere  vehicle  for  sentiment  and  attitude. 


3,54  ST.   MAEY  MAGDALENE 

1.  The  earliest  example  I  can  remember  of  the  Penitent 
Magdalene,  dramatically  treated,  remains  as  yet  unsurpassed  ; 

—  the  reading  Magdalene  of  Correggio,  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.1 
This  lovely  creation  has  only  one  fault  —  the  virginal  beauty 
is  that  of  a  Psyche  or  a  Seraph.     In  Oehlenschlager's  drama 
of  "  Correggio,"  there  is  a  beautiful  description  of  this  far-famed 
picture  ;  he  calls  it  "  Die  Gottinn  des  Waldes  Frommigkeit," 

—  the  goddess  of  the  religious  solitude.      And  in  truth,  if  we 
could  imagine  Diana  reading  instead  of   hunting,   she  might 
have  looked  thus.    Oehlenschlager  has  made  poetical  use  of  the 
tradition   that   Correggio   painted  this   Magdalene   for  a  poor 
monk  who  was  his  confessor  or  physician  ;  and  thus  he  makes 
Silvestro  comment  on  the  work  :  — 

What  a  fair  picture  !  — 

This  dark  o'erhanging  shade,  the  long  fair  hair, 
The  delicate  white  skin,  the  azure  robe, 
The  full  luxuriant  life,  the  grim  death's  head, 
The  tender  womanhood,  and  the  great  book:  — 
These  various  contrasts  have  you  cunningly 
Brought  into  sweetest  harmony. 

But  truer,  at  least  nobler  in  sentiment,  is  the  Magdalene  by 
the  same  painter  (in  the  Manfrini  Palace,  Venice),  of  the  same 
size  and  similarly  draped  in  dark  blue  ;  but  here  standing  at 
the  entrance  of  her  cave.  She  leans  her  elbow  on  the  book 
which  lies  on  the  rock,  and  appears  to  be  meditating  on  its 
contents.  The  head,  seen  in  front,  is  grand  and  earnest,  with 
a  mass  of  fair  hair,  a  large  wide  brow,  and  deep,  deep  eyes 
full  of  mystery.  The  expression  of  power  in  this  head  pleases 
me  especially,  because  true  to  the  character,  as  I  conceive  it. 

Doch  ist  es  schon  von  einem  Weibe,  mein'  ich, 

Einmal  gefallen  wieder  sich  zu  heben; 

Es  gibt  sehr  wen'ge  Miinner,  die  das  kijnnen ! 

Yes!  it  is  good  to  see  a  hapless  woman, 
That  once  has  fallen,  redeem  herself!     In  truth, 
There  be  few  men,  methink.s,  could  do  as  much. 

Correggio,  act  i.  scene  1. 

1  [The  authenticity  of  this  famous  picture  is  boldly  challenged  by  Morelli, 
who  considers  it  a  copy  by  some  northern  artist  of  a  late  sixteenth-century 
work  by  one  of  the  Caracci  school.  Dr.  Julius  Meyer,  in  his  work  on  Correg- 
gio, has  also  pronounced  "against  its  genuineness.  Vide  Morelli,  Critical  Studies 
of  Italian  Painters,  vol.  ii.  pp.  158-165  ;  also  Dr.  Woermann's  catalogue  of  the 
Dresden  Gallery.] 


ST.    MARY    MAGDALENE  355 

I  do  not  know  why  this  lovely  Manfrini  picture  should 
be  so  much  less  celebrated  than  the  Dresden  Magdalene. 
While  the  latter  has  been  multiplied  by  copies  and  engravings, 
I  do  not  remember  a  single  print  after  the  Manfrini  Magda- 
lene. There  is  a  bad  feeble,  copy  in  the  Louvre ; J  I  know  no 
other. 

2.  There  is  a  celebrated  picture  by  Timoteo  della  Vite,  in 
the  Bologna  Gallery.      She  is  standing  before  the  entrance  of 
her  cavern,  arrayed  in  a  crimson  mantle  ;   her  long  hair  is  seen 
beneath  descending  to  her  feet ;  the  hands  joined  in  prayer, 
the  head  declined  on  one  side,  and  the  whole  expression  that 
of  girlish  innocence  and  simplicity,  with  a  touch  of  the  pa- 
thetic.     A  mendicant,  not  a  Magdalene,  is  the  idea  suggested  j 
and,  for  myself,   I  confess   that  at  the  first  glance  I  was  re- 
minded of  the  little  Red  Riding-hood,  and  could  think  of  no 
sin  that  could  have  been  attributed  to  such  a  face  and  figure, 
beyond  the  breaking  of  a  pot  of  butter :  yet  the  picture  is 
very  beautiful. 

3.  The  Magdalene  of  Titian  was  so  celebrated  in  his  own 
time  that  he  painted  at  least  five  or  six  repetitions  of  it,  and 
copies  and  engravings  have  since  been  multiplied.      [The  ear- 
liest of  Titian's  Magdalenes  now  extant  is  probably  that  in 
the  Pitti,  Florence.]     The  eyes,  swimming  in  tears,  are  raised 
to  heaven  ;   the  long  dishevelled  hair  floats  over  her  shoulders  ; 
one  hand  is  pressed  on  her  bosom,  the  other  rests  on  the  skull ; 
the  forms  are  full  and  round,  the  coloring  rich ;   a  book  and  a 
box  of  ointment  lie  before  her  on  a  fragment  of  rock.      She  is 
sufficiently  woful,   but   seems   rather   to   regret   her  past  life 
than  to  repent  of  it,  nor  is  there  anything  in  the  expression 
which   can  secure  us   against  a   relapse.      Titian   painted  the 
original  for  Charles  V.     His  idea  of  the  pose  was  borrowed, 
as  we  are  told,  from  an  antique  statue,  and  his  model  was  a 
young  girl,  who  being  fatigued  with  long  standing,  the  tears 
ran  down  her  face,  "and  Titian  attained  the  desired  expres- 
sion "  !     His  idea,  therefore,  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  was  the 
fusion  of  an  antique  statue  and  a  girl  taken  out  of  the  streets ; 
and  with  all  its  beauties  as  a  work  of  Art  —  and  very  beauti- 
ful it  is  —  this  chef-d'oeuvre  of  Titian  is,  to  my  taste,  most 
unsatisfactory. 

1  It  was  in  the  Standish  Gallery  belonging  to  Louis  Philippe,  and  now  dis- 
persed. 


356  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

4.  Cigoli's  Magdalene  is  seated  on  a  rock,  veiled  only  by 
her  long  hair,  which  falls  over  the  whole  figure  ;   the  eyes,  still 
wet  with  tears,  are  raised  to  heaven  ;  one  arm  is  round  a  skull, 
the  right  hand  rests  on  a  book  which  is  on  her  knees.     [Pitti, 
Florence.] 

5.  The  Magdalene  of  Carlo  Cignani,  veiled  in  her  dishev- 
elled hair,  and  wringing  her  hands,  is  also  most  affecting  for 
the  fervent  expression  of  sorrow. 

6.  Guido,  regarded  as  the  painter  of  Magdalenes  par  excel- 
lence, has  carried  this  mistake  yet  farther ;  he  had  ever  the 
classical  Niobe  in  his  mind,  and  his  saintly  penitents,  with  all 
their  exceeding  loveliness,  appear  to  me  utterly  devoid  of  that 
beauty  which  has  been  called  "  the  beauty  of  holiness ;  "  the 
reproachful  grandeur  of  the  Niobe  is  diluted  into  voluptuous 
feebleness  ;  the  tearful  face,  with  the  loose  golden  hair  and 
uplifted  eyes,  of  which  he  has  given  us  at  least  ten  repetitions, 
however  charming  as  Art,  as  painting,  are  unsatisfactory  as 
religious  representations.      I  cannot  except  even  the  beautiful 
study  in  our  National  Gallery,  nor  the  admired  full  length  in 
the  Sciarra  Palace,  at  Rome  ;  the  latter,  when  I  saw  it  last,  ap- 
peared to  me  poor  and  mannered,  and  the  pale  coloring  not 
merely  delicate,  but  vapid.     A  head  of  Mary  Magdalene  read- 
ing, apparently  a  study  from  life,  is,  however,  in  a  grand  style. 
(Lichtenstein  Gallery.) 

7.  Murillo's    Magdalene,    in    the    Louvre,   kneeling,   with 
hands  crossed  on  her   bosom,  eyes  upraised,  and  parted   lips, 
has  eager  devout  hope  as  well  as  sorrow  in  the  countenance. 
8.  But  turn  to  the  Magdalene  of  Alonzo  Cano,  which  hangs 
near :  drooping,  negligent  of  self ;  the  very  hands  are  nerve- 
less, languid,  dead.1     Nothing  but  woe,  guilt,  and  misery  are 
in   the  face  and  attitude  ;    she  has  not  yet  looked  into  the 
face  of  Christ,  nor  sat  at  His  feet,  nor  heard  from  His  lips, 
"  Woman,  thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee,"  nor  dared  to  hope ;  it  is 
the   penitent  only  ;  the   whole  head   is  faint,  and   the  whole 
heart  sick.     9.   But  the  beautiful  Magdalene  of  Annibal  Ca- 
racci  2  has  heard  the  words  of  mercy  ;  she  has  memories  which 
are  not  of  sin  only  ;  angelic  visions  have  already  come  to  her 

1  These  two  pictures  were  sold  out  of  the  Louvre  with  King  Louis  Philippe's 
pictures. 

2  [Reference  is  probably  to  the  picture  in  the  Doria  Gallery,  attributed  to  the 
Bolognese  school.] 


ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE 


357 


Magdalene  (Guido  Reni) 

in  that  wild  solitude ;  she  is  seated  at  the  foot  of  a  tree ;  she 
leans  her  cheek  on  her  left  hand,  the  other  rests  on  a  skull ; 
she  is  in  deep  contemplation  ;  but  her  thoughts  are  not  of 
death ;  the  upward  ardent  look  is  full  of  hope,  and  faith,  and 
love.  The  fault  of  this  beautiful  little  picture  lies  in  the 
sacrifice  of  the  truth  of  the  situation  to  the  artistic  feeling  of 
beauty  —  the  common  fault  of  the  school ;  the  forms  are 
large,  round,  full,  untouched  by  grief  and  penance. 

10.  Vandyck's  Magdalenes  have  the  same  fault  as  his  Ma- 
donnas ;  they  are  not  feeble  nor  voluptuous,  but  they  are  too 
elegant  and  ladylike.  I  remember,  for  example,  a  Deposition 
by  Vandyck,  and  one  of  his  finest  pictures,  in  which  Mary 
Magdalene  kisses  the  hand  of  the  Saviour  quite  with  the  air 
of  a  princess.  The  most  beautiful  of  his  penitent  Magdalenes 
is  the  half-length  figure  with  the  face  in  profile,  bending 
with  clasped  hands  over  the  crucifix ;  the  skull  and  knotted 
scourge  lie  on  a  shelf  of  rock  behind ;  underneath  is  the  in- 


358  ST.   MARY   MAGDALEXE 

scription,  "  Fallit  gratia,  et  vana  est  pulchritude ;  mulier 
timens  Dominum  ipsa  laudabitur."  (Prov.  xxxi.  30.)  11. 
Rubens  has  given  us  thirteen  Magdalenes,  more  or  less  coarse  ; 
in  one  picture  (Turin  Gallery)  she  is  tearing  her  hair  like  a 
disappointed  virago  ;  in  another,  the  expression  of  grief  is 
overpowering,  but  it  is  that  of  a  woman  in  the  house  of  cor- 
rection. From  this  sweeping  condemnation  I  must  make  one 
exception  ;  it  is  the  picture  known  as  "  The  Four  Penitents  " 
(Munich).  In  front  the  Magdalene  bows  down  her  head  on 
her  clasped  hands  with  such  an  expression  of  profound  hu- 
mility as  Rubens  only,  when  painting  out  of  nature  and  his 
own  heart,  could  give.  Christ,  with  an  air  of  tender  yet  sub- 
lime compassion,  looks  down  upon  her,  —  "  Thy  sins  be  for- 
given thee !  "  Behind  Christ  and  the  Magdalene  stand  Peter, 
David,  and  Didymus,  the  penitent  thief;  the  faces  of  these 
three,  thrown  into  shadow  to  relieve  the  two  principal  figures, 
have  a  self-abased,  mournful  expression.  (There  is  an  infe- 
rior repetition  in  the  Royal  Gallery  at  Turin.)  I  have  never 
seen  anything  from  the  hand  of  Rubens  at  once  so  pure  and 
pathetic  in  sentiment  as  this  picture,  while  the  force  and  truth 
of  the  painting  are,  as  usual,  wonderful.  No  one  should  judge 
Rubens  who  has  not  studied  him  in  the  Munich  Gallery. 
There  is  a  beautiful  half-length  female  figure  attributed  to 
Correggio,  and  engraved  under  the  title  of  Gismunda  weeping 
over  the  heart  of  her  lover,  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle.  The  duplicate  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna 
is  there  styled  a  Magdalene,  and  attributed  correctly  to  Fran- 
cesco Furini. 

The  HISTORICAL  SUBJECTS  from  the  life  of  Mary  Mag- 
dalene are  either  scriptural  or  legendary  ;  and  the  character  of 
the  Magdalene,  as  conceived  by  the  greatest  painters,  is  more 
distinctly  expressed  in  those  scriptural  scenes  in  which  she  is 
an  important  figure,  than  in  the  single  and  ideal  representa- 
tions. The  illuminated  Gospels  of  the  ninth  century  furnish 
the  oldest  type  of  Mary,  the  penitent  and  the  sister  of  Laza- 
rus, but  it  differs  from  the  modern  conception  of  the  Magda- 
lene. She  is  in  such  subjects  a  secondary  scriptural  personage, 
one  of  the  accessories  in  the  history  of  Christ,  and  nothing 
more ;  no  attempt  was  made  to  give  her  importance,  either  by 
beauty  or  dignity,  or  prominence  of  place,  till  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  359 

The  sacred  subjects  in  which  she  is  introduced  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

1.  Jesus  at  supper  with  Simon  the  Pharisee.  —  "  And  she 
began  to  wash  his  feet  with  tears,  and  did  wipe  them  with  the 
hair  of  her  head,  and  kissed  his  feet,  and  anointed  them  with 
ointment."      (Luke  vii.  30.) 

2.  Christ  is  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary.  —  "  And  she 
sat  at  Jesus'  feet,  and  heard  his  words ;  but  Martha  was  cum- 
bered with  much  serving."      (Luke  x.  39,  40.) 

3.  The   raising  of  Lazarus.  —  "  Lord,   if   thou  hadst  been 
here,  my  brother  had  not  died."      (John  xi.  32.) 

4.  The  Crucifixion.  —  "  Now  there  stood  by,  the  cross  Mary 
Magdalene."      (John  xix.  25  ;  Matt,  xxvii.  56.) 

5.  The  Deposition  from   the  Cross.  —  "  And  Mary  Magda- 
lene, and   the  mother  of  Jesus,  beheld  where   he  was  laid." 
(Mark  xv.  47.) 

6.  The  Maries  at  the  Sepulchre.  —  "  And  there  was  Mary 
Magdalene  and  the  other  Mary,  sitting  over  against  the  sepul- 
chre."    (Matt,  xxvii.  61.) 

7.  Christ  appears  to  Mary  Magdalene  in  the  Garden,  called 
the  "Noli  me  tangere."  —  "Touch. me  not,  for  I  am  not  yet 
ascended  to  my  Father."      (John  xx.  17.) 

In  the  first,  second,  and  last  of  these  subjects,  the  Magda- 
lene is  one  of  the  two  principal  figures,  and  necessary  to  the 
action  ;  in  the  others  she  is  generally  introduced,  but  in  some 
instances  omitted  ;  and  as  all  belong  properly  to  the  life  of 
Christ,  I  shall  confine  myself  now  to  a  few  remarks  on  the 
characteristic  treatment  of  the  Magdalene  in  each. 

1.  The  supper  with  Simon  has  been  represented  in  every 
variety  of  style.  The  earliest  and  simplest  I  can  call  to  mind 
is  the  fresco  of  Taddeo  Gaddi 1  in  the  Rinuccini  Chapel  [Santa 
Croce],  Florence.  The  Magdalene  bends  down  prostrate  on 
the  feet  of  the  Saviour ;  she  is  in  a  red  dress,  and  her  long 
yellow  hair  flows  doAvn  her  back ;  the  seven  devils  by  which 
she  was  possessed  are  seen  above,  flying  out  of  the  roof  of  the 
house  in  the  shape  of  little  black  monsters.  Raphael,  when 
treating  the  same  subject,  thought  only  of  the  religious  signifi- 
cance of  the  action,  and  how  to  express  it  with  the  utmost 
force  and  the  utmost  simplicity.  There  are  few  figures  —  our 

1  [The  frescoes  of  this  chapel  are  attributed  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  to 
Giovanni  da  Milano,  the  favorite  pupil  of  Taddeo  Gaddi.] 


360  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

Saviour,  the  Pharisee,  four  apostles,  and  two  attendants-, 
Mary  Magdalene  in  front  bends  over  the  feet  of  Christ,  while 
her  long  hair  half  conceals  her  face  and  almost  sweeps  the 
ground  ;  nothing  can  exceed  the  tenderness  and  humility  of 
the  attitude  and  the  henign  dignity  of  Christ.  As  an  example 
of  thevmost  opposite  treatment  let  us  turn  to  the  gorgeous 
composition  of  Paul  Veronese ;  we  have  a  stately  banquet- 
room,  rich  architecture,  a  crowd  of  about  thirty  figures ;  and 
the  Magdalene  is  merely  a  beautiful  female  with  loose  robes, 
dishevelled  tresses,  and  the  bosom  displayed ;  this  gross  fault 
of  sentiment  is  more  conspicuous  in  the  large  picture  in  the 
Durazzo  Palace  J  at  Genoa  than  in  the  beautiful  finished  sketch 
in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Rogers.2  A  fine  sketch  by  the  same 
painter,  but  quite  different,  [was]  at  Alton  Towers.  The 
composition  of  Rubens,  of  which  a  very  fine  sketch  is  in  the 
Windsor  collection,  is  exceedingly  dramatic ;  the  dignity  of 
Christ  and  the  veneration  and  humility  of  the  Magdalene  are 
admirably  expressed  ;  but  the  disdainful  surprise  of  some  of 
the  assistants,  and  the  open  mockery  of  others  —  the  old  man 
in  spectacles  peering  over  to  convince  himself  of  the  truth  — 
disturb  the  solemnity  of  the  feeling :  and  this  fault  is  even 
more  apparent  in  the  composition  of  Philippe  de  Champaigne, 
where  a  young  man  puts  up  his  finger  with  no  equivocal  ex- 
pression. In  these  two  examples  the  moment  chosen  is  not 
"  Thy  sins  are  forgiven  thee,"  but  the  scepticism  of  the  Phari- 
see becomes  the  leading  idea  :  "  This  man,  if  he  were  a 
prophet,  would  have  known  who  and  what  manner  of  woman 
this  is." 

2.  Christ  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary.  Of  this  beau- 
tiful subject  I  have  never  seen  a  satisfactory  version ;  in  the 
fresco  in  the  Rinuccini  Chapel  the  subject  becomes  legendary 
rather  than  scriptural.  Mary  Magdalene  is  seated  at  the  feet 
of  Christ  in  an  attitude  of  attention ;  Martha  seems  to  expos- 
tulate ;  three  of  the  disciples  are  behind ;  a  little  out  of  the 
principal  group,  St.  Marcella,  also  with  a  glory  round  her  head, 
is  seen  cooking.  At  Hampton  Court  there  is  a  curious  picture 
of  this  subject  by  Hans  Vries,  which  is  an  elaborate  study  of 

1  The  great  picture  formerly  in  the  Durazzo  Palace  is  now  in  the  Royal  Gal- 
lery at  Turin.     It  is  wonderful   for  life  and  color,  and  dramatic  feeling  —  a 
masterpiece  of  the  painter  in  his  characteristic  style. 

2  [Bought  by  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts.     Vide  Redford's  Sales,  vol.  i.  p.  151 ; 
vol.  ii.  p.  260.] 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  361 

architecture :  the  rich  decoration  of  the  interior  has  been  criti- 
cised ;  but,  according  to  the  legend,  Martha  and*  Mary  lived  in 
great  splendor;  and  there  is  no  impropriety  in  representing 
their  dwelling  as  a  palace,  but  a  very  great  impropriety  in 
rendering  the  decorations  of  the  palace  more  important  than 
the  personages  of  the  scene.  In  a  picture  by  Old  Bassano, 
Christ  is  seen  entering  the  house ;  Mary  Magdalene  goes  for- 
ward to  meet  him ;  Martha  points  to  the  table  where  Lazarus 
sits  composedly  cutting  a  slice  of  sausage,  and  in  the  corner 
St.  Marcella  is  cooking  at  a  fire.  In  a  picture  by  Rubens,  the 
treatment  is  similar.  The  holy  sisters  are  like  two  Flemish 
farm  servants,  and  Christ  —  but  I  dare  not  proceed :  —  in  both 
these  instances,  the  coloring,  the  expression,  the  painting  of 
the  accessories  —  the  vegetables  and  fruit,  the  materials  and 
implements  for  cooking  a  feast  —  are  as  animated  and  true  to 
nature  as  the  conception  of  the  whole  scene  is  trivial,  vulgar, 
and,  to  a  just  taste,  intolerably  profane. 

One  of  the  most  modern  compositions  of  this  scene  which 
has  attracted  attention  is  that  of  Overbeck,  very  simple  and 
poetical,  but  deficient  in  individual  expression. 

3.  The  raising  of  Lazarus  was  selected  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians as  an  emblem  both  of  the  general  resurrection  and  the 
resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  at  a  time  that  the  resurrection 
of  the  Saviour  in  person  was  considered  a  subject  much  too 
solemn  and  mysterious  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  imitative  arts. 
In  its  primitive  signification,  as  the  received  emblem  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  we  find  this  subject  abounding  in 
the  catacombs,  and  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries.  The  usual  manner  of  representation  shows  the  dead 
man  swathed  like  a  mummy,  under  the  porch  of  a  temple 
resembling  a  tomb,  to  which  there  is  an  ascent  by  a  flight  of 
steps.  Christ  stands  before  him,  and  touches  him  with  a 
wand.  Sometimes  there  are  two  figures  only,  but  in  general 
Mary  Magdalene  is  kneeling  by.  There  is  one  instance  only 
in  which  Christ  stands  surrounded  by  the  apostles,  and  the 
two  sisters  are  kneeling  at  his  feet,  —  "  Lord,  hadst  thou  been 
here,  my  brother  had  not  died."  1 

In  more  modern  Art  this  subject  loses  its  mystic  significa- 
tion, and  becomes  simply  a  scriptural  incident.  It  is  treated 
like  a  scene  in  a  drama,  and  the  painters  have  done  their 
l  Bottari,  Tab.  xxx.  * 


3G2  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

utmost  to  vary  the  treatment.  But,  however  varied  as  re- 
gards the  style  of  conception  and  the  number  of  personages, 
Martha  and  Mary  are  always  present,  and,  in  general,  Mary 
is  at  the  feet  of  our  Saviour.  The  incident  is  of  course  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  life  of  Christ,  and  is  never 
omitted  in  the  series,  nor  yet  in  the  miracles  of  our  Saviour. 
But,  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  forms 
one  of  the  scenes  of  the  story  of  Mary  Magdalene.  The  fresco 
of  Giovanni  da  Milano  at  Assisi 1  contains  thirteen  figures,  and 
the  two  sisters  kneeling  at  the  feet  of  Christ  have  a  grand  and 
solemn  simplicity  ;  but  Mary  is  not  here  in  any  respect  distin- 
guished from  Martha,  and  both  are  attired  in  red. 

In  the  picture  in  our  National  Gallery  [designed  in  part  by 
Michael  Angelo  and  painted  by  Sebastiano  del  Piombo],  the 
kneeling  figure  of  Mary  looking  up  in  the  face  of  Jesus,  with 
her  grand  severe  beauty  and  earnest  expression,  is  magnificent : 
but  here,  again,  Mary  of  Bethany  is  not  Mar)'  Magdalene, 
nor  the  woman  "  who  was  a  sinner ; "  and  I  doubt  whether 
Michael  Angelo  intended  to  represent  her  as  such.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Caracci,  Rubens,  and  the  later  painters  are 
careful  to  point  out  the  supposed  identity,  by  the  long  fair 
hair,  exposed  and  dishevelled,  the  superior  beauty  and  the 
superior  prominence  and  importance  of  the  figure,  while  Martha 
stands  by,  veiled,  and  as  a  secondary  personage. 

4.  In  the  crucifixion,  where  more  than  the  three  figures 
(the  Redeemer,  the  Virgin,  and  St.  John)  are  introduced,  the 
Magdalene  is  almost  always  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  and  it 
is  said  that  Giotto  gave  the  first  example.  Sometimes  she  is 
embracing  the  cross,  and  looking  up  with  all  the  abandonment 
of  despairing  grief,  which  is  more  picturesque  than  true  in 
sentiment ;  finer  in  feeling  is  the  expression  of  serene  hope 
tempering  the  grief.  In  Rubens'  famous  "  Crucifixion "  in 
the  Antwerp  [Cathedral],  she  has  her  arms  round  the  cross, 
and  is  gazing  at  the  executioner  with  a  look  of  horror :  this 
is  very  dramatic  and  striking,  but  the  attention  of  the  penitent 
ought  to  be  fixed  on  the  dying  Saviour,  to  the  exclusion  of 
every  other  thought  or  object.  In  Vandyck's  "  Crucifixion," 
the  face  of  the  Magdalene  seen  in  front  is  exquisite  for  its 
pathetic  beauty.  Sometimes  the  Virgin  is  fainting  in  her 

1  [The  frescoes  at  Assisi  are  no  longer  assigned  to  Giovanni  da  Milano.] 


ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE  363 

arms.     The  box  of  ointment  is  frequently  placed  near,  to  dis- 
tinguish her  from  the  other  Maries  present. 

5.  In  the  Descent  or  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  and  in  the 
Entombment,  Mary  Magdalene  is  generally  conspicuous.     She 
is  often  supporting  the  feet  or  one  of  the  hands  of  the  Saviour ; 
or  she  stands  by   weeping ;   or  she  sustains   the  Virgin ;   or 
(which  is  very  usual  in  the  earlier  pictures)  she  is  seen  la- 
menting aloud,  with  her  long  tresses  disordered,  and  her  arms 
outspread  in  an  ecstasy  of  grief  and  passion ;  or  she  bends 
down  to  embrace  the  feet  of  the  Saviour,  or  to  kiss  his  hand ; 
or  contemplates  with  a  mournful  look  one  of  the  nails,  or  the 
crown  of  thorns,  which  she  holds  in  her  hand. 

In  the  Pieth,  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  in  the  Pitti  Palace,  the 
prostrate  abandonment  in  the  figure  of  the  Magdalene,  press- 
ing the  feet  of  Christ  to  her  bosom,  is  full  of  pathetic  expres- 
sion ;  in  the  same  gallery  is  the  Pieta  by  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
where  the  Magdalene,  kneeling,  wrings  her  hands  in  mute 
sorrow.  But  in  this,  as  in  other  instances,  Raphael  has 
shown  himself  supreme ;  there  is  a  wonderful  little  drawing 
by  him,  in  which  Nicodemus  and  others  sustain  the  body  of 
the  Saviour,  while  Mary  Magdalene  lies  prostrate  bending  her 
head  over  his  feet,  which  she  embraces ;  the  face  is  wholly 
concealed  by  the  flowing  hair,  but  never  was  the  expression 
of  overwheming  love  and  sorrow  conveyed  with  such  artless 
truth.1 

6.  The  Maries  at  the  Sepulchre.     The  women  who  carry 
the  spices  and  perfumes  to  the  tomb  of  Jesus  are  called,  in 
Greek    Art,   the   Myrrlwpliores,  or    myrrh-bearers :    with  us 
there  are  usually  three  —  Mary  Magdalene,  Mary  the  mother 
of  James  and  John,  and  Mary   Salome.     In  Matthew,  two 
women  are  mentioned ;  in  Mark,  three ;  in  Luke,  the  number 
is    indefinite ;    and    in   John,    only   one   is   mentioned,    Mary 
Magdalene.     There   is   scarcely  a   more  beautiful   subject  in 
the  whole  circle  of  scripture  story  than  this  of  the  three  deso- 
late affectionate  women  standing  before  the  tomb  in  the  gray 
dawn,  while  the  majestic  angels  are  seen  guarding  the  hallowed 
spot.      One   of    the   earliest   examples   is   the   composition   of 
Duccio  [Siena]  ;   the  rules  of  perspective  were  then  unknown 

1  [The  treatment  of  the  Magdalene  is  similar  in  Raphael's  Pieta  in  the  col- 
lection of  Mr.  Dawson,  London.     Vide  Miintz,  Raphael,  p.  211.] 


364  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

—  but  what  a  beautiful  simplicity  in  the  group  of  women ! 
how  fine  the  seated  angel !  —  "  The  angel  of  the  Lord  de- 
scended from  heaven,  and  came  and  rolled  back  the  stone  from 
the  door  and  sat  upon  it."  I  have  seen  one  instance,  and 
only  one,  in  which  the  angel  is  in  the  act  of  descending ;  in 
general,  the  version  according  to  St.  John  is  followed,  and  the 
"  two  men  in  shining  garments  "  are  seated  within  the  tomb. 
There  is  a  famous  engraving,  after  a  design  by  Michael  Angelo, 
called  "  The  Three  Maries  going  to  the  Sepulchre ;  "  it  repre- 
sents three  old  women  veiled,  and  with  their  backs  turned  — 
very  awful ;  but  they  might  as  well  be  called  the  three  Fates, 
or  the  three  Witches,  as  the  three  Maries.  The  subject  has 
never  been  more  happily  treated  than  by  Philip  Veit,  a  modern 
German  artist,  in  a  print  which  has  become  popxtlar ;  he  has 
followed  the  version  of  Matthew :  "  As  it  began  to  dawn, 
came  Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other  Mary  to  see  the  sepul- 
chre." The  attitude  of  motionless  sorrow ;  the  anxious  ex- 
pectant looks,  fixed  on  the  tomb ;  the  deep  shadowy  stillness  ; 
the  morning  light  just  breaking  in  the  distance,  are  very  truly 
and  feelingly  expressed. 

7.  The  "  Noli  me  tangere  "  is  the  subject  of  many  pictures ; 
they  do  not  vary  in  the  simplicity  of  the  motif,  which  is  fixed 
by  tradition,  and  admits  of  but  two  persons.  The  composition 
of  Duccio,  as  one  of  the  series  of  the  Passion  of  Christ,  is 
extremely  grand  ;  and  the  figure  of  Mary,  leaning  forward  as 
she  kneels,  with  outstretched  hands  full  of  expression.  The 
old  fresco  [attributed  to  Giovanni  da  Milano]  in  the  Rinuccini 
Chapel  at  Santa  Croce,  Florence,  is  also  exquisite.  Two  of 
the  finest  in  conception  and  treatment  are,  notwithstanding,  in 
striking  contrast  to  each  other.  One  is  the  Titian  [once]  in  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Rogers  and  bequeathed  by  the  poet  to  the 
National  Gallery  :  the  Magdalene,  kneeling,  bends  forward 
with  eager  expression,  and  one  hand  extended  to  touch  him  : 
the  Saviour,  drawing  his  linen  garment  round  him,  shrinks  back 
from  her  touch  —  yet  with  the  softest  expression  of  pity.  Be- 
sides the  beauty  and  truth  of  the  expression,  this  picture  is 
transcendent  as  a  piece  of  color  and  effect ;  while  the  rich  land- 
scape and  the  approach  of  morning  over  the  blue  distance  are 
conceived  with  a  sublime  simplicity.  Not  less  a  miracle  of 
Art,  not  less  poetical,  but  in  a  far  different  style,  is  the  Rem- 
brandt in  the  Queen's  Gallery  [Buckingham  Palace]  :  at  the 


NOLI   ME  TANGERE  (TITIAN) 


ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE  365 

entrance  of  the  sepulchre  the  Saviour  is  seen  in  the  habili- 
ments of  a  gardener,  and  Mary  Magdalene  at  his  feet,  adoring. 
This  picture  exhibits,  in  a  striking  degree,  all  the  wild  origi- 
nality and  peculiar  feeling  of  Rembrandt :  the  forms  and  char- 
acters are  common ;  but  the  deep  shadow  of  the  cavern  tomb, 
the  dimly-seen  supernatural  beings  within  it,  the  breaking  of 
the  dawn  over  the  distant  city,  are  awfully  sublime,  and 
worthy  of  the  mysterious  scene.  Baroccio's  great  altar-piece, 
which  came  to  England  with  the  Duke  of  Lucca's  pictures, 
once  so  famous,  and  well  known  from  the  fine  engraving  of 
Raphael  Morghen,  is  poor  compared  with  any  of  these :  Christ 
is  effeminate  and  commonplace  —  Mary  Magdalene  all  in  a 
flutter. 

I  now  leave  these  scriptural  incidents,  to  be  more  fully  con- 
sidered hereafter,  and  proceed  to  the  fourth  class  of  subjects 
pertaining  to  the  life  of  the  Magdalene  —  those  which  are 
taken  from  the  wild  Provengal  legends  of  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries. 

1.  "  La  Danse  de  la  Madeleine  "  is  the  title  given  to  a  very 
rare  and  beautiful  print  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden.     It  represents 
Mary  Magdalene  abandoned  to  the   pleasures   of  the  world. 
The  scene  is  a  smiling  and  varied  landscape ;  in  the  centre 
Mary  Magdalene,  with  the  anticipative  glory  round  her  head, 
is  seen  dancing  along  to  the  sound  of  a  flute  and  tabor,  while 
a  man  in  a  rich  dress  leads  her  by  the  hand :  several  groups  of 
men  and  women  are  diverting  themselves  in  the  foreground ; 
in  the  background  Mary  Magdalene,  with  a  number  of  gay 
companions,  is  chasing  the  stag ;  she  is  mounted  on  horseback, 
and  has  again  the  glory  round  her  head  :  far  in  the  distance 
she  is  seen  borne  upwards  by  the  angels.     This  singular  and 
suggestive  composition  is  dated  1519.     There  is  a  fine  impres- 
sion in  the  British  Museum. 

2.  "  Mary  Magdalene  rebuked  by  her  sister  Martha  for  her 
vanity  and  luxury/''     I  believe  I  am  the  first  to  suggest  that 
the  famous  picture  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
known  as  "  Modesty  and  Vanity,"  is  a  version  of  this  subject. 
When  I  saw  it,  this  idea  was  suggested,  and  no  other  filled  my 
mind.      The  subject  is  one  often  treated,  and  here   treated  in 
Leonardo's  peculiar  manner.      The  attitude  of  the  veiled  figure 
is  distinctly   that    of    remonstrance  and   rebuke  j    the  other, 


366  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

decked  and  smiling,  looks  out  of  the  picture  holding  flowers  in 
her  hand,  as  yet  unconvinced,  unconverted  :  the  vase  of  oint- 
ment stands  near  her.  In  other  pictures  there  is  no  doubt  as 
to  the  significance  of  the  subject ;  it  has  been  gracefully 
treated  in  a  picture  by  Giovanni  Lopicino,  now  in  the  gallery 
of  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna.  She  is  seated  at  her  toilette ;  her 
maid  is  binding  her  luxuriant  hair ;  Martha,  standing  by, 
appears  to  be  remonstrating  with  great  fervor.  There  is  a 
pretty  picture  by  Elisabetta  Sirani  of  the  same  scene,  simi- 
larly treated. 

3.  "  Mary  Magdalene  conducted  by  her  sister  Martha  to  the 
feet  of  Jesus."     Of  this  most  beautiful  subject  I  know  but 
one  composition  of  distinguished  merit.     It  is  by  Raphael,  and 
exists  only  in  the  drawing,  and  the  rare  engraving  by  Marc 
Antonio.     Christ  sits  within  the  porch  of  the  Temple,  teaching 
four  of  his  disciples  who  stand  near  him.     Martha  and  Mary 
are  seen  ascending  the  steps  which  lead  to  the  portico  :  Martha, 
who  is  veiled,  seems  to  encourage  her  sister,  who  looks  down. 
I  observe  that  Passavant  and  others  are  uncertain   as   to  the 
subject  of  this  charming  design :  *it  has  been  styled  "  The  Vir- 
gin Mary  presenting  the  Magdalene  to  Christ ;  "  but  with  any  one 
who  has  carefully  considered  the  legend  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  intention  of  the  artist.      "  Mary  Magdalene  listening 
to  the  preaching  of  our  Saviour,  with   Martha   seated  by  her 
side,"  is  one  of  the  subjects  in  the  series  by  Gauden^io  Ferrari 
at  Vercelli :  it  is   partly  destroyed.     We  have  the  same  sub- 
ject by  F.  Zucchero  ;  Mary,  in  a  rich  dress,  is  kneeling  at  the 
feet  of  the  Saviour,  who  is  seated   under  a   portico  ;   Martha, 
veiled,  stands  near  her,  and  there  are  numerous  spectators  and 
accessories. 

4.  "  The  Magdalene  renouncing  the  Vanities  of  the  World  " 
is  also  a  very  attractive  subject.     In  a  picture  by  Guido  she 
has  partly  divested  herself  of  her  rich  ornaments,  and  is  taking 
some  pearls  from  her  hair,  while  she  looks  up  to  heaven  with 
tearful  eyes.     In  a  sketch  by  Rubens,  in  the  Dulwich  Gallery, 
she  is  seated  in  a  forest  solitude,  still  arrayed  in  her  worldly 
finery,  blue  satin,  pearls,  etc.,  and  wringing  her  hands  with  an 
expression  of  the  bitterest  grief.     The  treatment,  as  usual  with 
him,  is  coarse,  but  effective.      In  his  large  picture  at  Vienna, 
with  the  figures  life  size,  Mary  is  spurning  with   her  feet  a 
casket   of  jewels,  and  throwing  herself   back  with  her  hands 


ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE  367 

clasped  in  an  agony  of  penitence  ;  while  Martha  sits  behind} 
gazing  on  her  with  an  expression  so  demurely  triumphant  as 
to  be  almost  comic.  There  is  an  exquisite  little  picture  by 
Gerard  Douw  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  in  which  the  Magdalene, 
in  a  magnificent  robe  of  crimson  and  sables,  is  looking  up  to 
heaven  with  an  expression  of  sorrow  and  penitence  ;  the  table 
before  her  is  covered  with  gold  and  jewels.  "  Mary  Magda- 
lene renouncing  the  World,"  by  Le  Brun,  is  a  famous  picture, 
now  in  the  Louvre.  She  looks  up  to  heaven  with  tearful  eyes, 
and  is  in  the  act  of  tearing  off  a  rich  mantle  ;  a  casket  of 
jewels  lies  overturned  at  her  feet.  This  picture  is  said  to  be 
the  portrait  of  Madame  de  la  Valliere,  by  whose  order  it  was 
painted  for  the  church  of  the  Carmelites  at  Paris,  where  she 
had  taken  refuge  from  the  court  and  from  the  world.  It  has 
that  sort  of  theatrical  grace  and  grandeur,  that  mannered  medi- 
ocrity, characteristic  of  the  painter  and  the  time.1  There  is  a 
Magdalene  in  the  Gallery  at  Munich  by  Le  Brun,  which  is  to 
me  far  preferable ;  and  this,  and  not  the  Paris  one,  I  presume 
to  be  the  portrait  of  the  Duchesse  de  la  Valliere.  In  a  pic- 
ture by  Franceschini  she  has  flung  off  her  worldly  ornaments, 
which  lie  scattered  on  the  ground,  and  holds  a  scourge  in  her 
hand,  with  which  she  appears  to  have  castigated  herself  :  she 
sinks  in  the  arms  of  one  of  her  attendant  maidens,  while 
Martha,  standing  by,  seems  to  speak  of  peace,  and  points  to- 
wards heaven  :  the  figures  are  life  size.  (Dresden  Gallery.) 
!None  of  these  pictures,  with  the  exception  of  the  precious 
Leonardo  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  have  any  remarkable  merit  as 
pictures.  The  scenes  between  Mary  and  Martha  are  capable  of 
the  most  dramatic  and  effective  illustration,  but  have  never 
yet  been  worthily  treated. 

5.  "  The  embarkation  of  the  Magdalene  in  Palestine,  with 
Martha,  Lazarus,  and  the  others,  cast  forth  by  their  enemies  in 
a  vessel  without  sails  or  rudder,  but  miraculously  conducted  by 
an  angel,"  is  another  subject  of  which  I  have  seen  no  adequate 
representation.  There  is  a  mediocre  picture  by  Curradi  in  the 
Florence  Gallery.  Among  the  beautiful  frescoes  of  Gaudenzio 
Ferrari  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cristoforo  at  Yercelli,  is  the  voy- 
age of  the  Magdalene  and  her  companions,  and  their  disem- 
barkation at  Marseilles. 

1  The  print  by  Edelinck  is  considered  as  the  masterpiece  of  that  celebrated 
engraver. 


368  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

6.  "  Mary  Magdalene  preaching  to  the  inhabitants  of  Mar- 
seilles "  has  been  several  times  represented  in  the  sculpture  and 
stained  glass  of  the  old  cathedrals  in  the  south  of  France.     In 
the  Hotel  de  Cluny  there  is  a  curious  old  picture  in  distemper 
attributed  to  King  Rend  of  Provence,  the  father  of  our  Mar- 
garet of  Anjou,  and  famous  for  his  skill  as  a  limner.     Mary 
Magdalene  is  standing  on  some  steps,  arrayed  in  loose  white 
drapery,  and  a  veil  over  her  head.     She  is  addressing  earnestly 
a  crowd  of  listeners,  and  among  them  we  see  King  Rene'  and 
his  wife  Jeanne  de  Laval  on  thrones  with  crown  and  sceptre, 
—  a  trifling  anachronism  of  about  1,400  years,  but  it  may  be 
taken  in  a  poetical  and  allegorical  sense.     The  port  of  Mar- 
seilles is  seen  in  the  background.     The  same  subject  has  been 
classically  treated  in  a  series  of  bas-reliefs  in  the  porch  of  the 
Certosa  at  Pavia :  there  is  a   mistake,  however,  in  exhibiting 
her  as  half  naked,  clothed  only  in  a  skin,  and  her  long  hair 
flowing  down  over  her  person  ;  for  she  was  at  this  time  the 
missionary  saint,  and  not  yet  the  penitent  of  the  desert. 

7.  "  Mary  Magdalene  borne  by  angels  above  the  summit  of 
Mount   Pilon,"  called  also  "The  Assumption  of  the  Magda- 
lene," is  a  charming  subject  when  treated  in  the  right  spirit. 
Unfortunately,  we  are  oftener  reminded  of  a  Pandora,  sustained 
by  a  group  of  Cupids,  or  a  Venus  rising  out  of  the  sea,  than 
of  the  ecstatic  trance  of  the  reconciled  penitent.     It  was  very 
early  a  popular  theme.     In  the  treatment  we  find  little  vari- 
ety.    She   is  seen  carried  upwards  very  slightly  draped,  and 
often  with  no  other  veil  than  her  redundant  hair,  flowing  over 
her  whole  person.     She  is  in  the  arms  of  four,  five,  or  six 
angels.      Sometimes  one  of  the  angels  bears  the  alabaster  box 
of  ointment ;    far    below   is   a   wild    mountainous    landscape, 
with  a  hermit  looking  up  at  the  vision,  as  it  is  related  in  the 
legend. 

In  a  hymn  to  the  Magdalene,  by  an  old  ProvenQal  poet 
(Balthazar  de  la  Burle),  there  is  a  passage  describing  her 
ascent  in  the  arms  of  angels,  which,  from  its  vivid  graphic 
naivete,  is  worthy  of  being  placed  under  the  print  of  Albert 
Dlirer :  — 

Ravengat  Ion  jour  los  anges  la  portavan 

Ben  plus  hault  que  lou  roc. 

Jamais  per  inauvais  temps  que  fessa  ne  freddura, 

Autrc  abit  non  avia  que  la  sien  cabellura, 


ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE  369 

Que  como  un  mantel  d'or  tant  eram  bels  e  blonds 
La  couvria  de  la  testa  tin  al  has  des  talons.1 

The  fresco  by  Giulio  Romano,  in  which  she  is  reclining 
amid  clouds,  and  sustained  by  six  angels,  while  her  head  is 
raised  and  her  arms  extended  with  the  most  ecstatic  expres- 
sion, was  cut  from  the  walls  of  a  chapel  in  the  Trinitk  di 
Monte  at  Rome,  and  is  now  in  our  National  Gallery. 

One  of  the  finest  pictures  ever  painted  by  Ribera  is  the 
Assumption  of  the  Magdalene  in  the  Louvre,  both  for  beauty 
of  expression  and  color.  She  is  here  draped,  and  her  drapery 
well  managed.2  The  Spanish  painters  never  fell  into  the 
mistake  of  the  Italians  ;  they  give  us  no  Magdalenes  which 
recall  the  idea  of  a  Venus  Meretrix.  •  The  rules  of  the  In- 
quisition were  here  absolute,  and  held  the  painters  in  whole- 
some check,  rendering  such  irreligious  innovations  inadmissible 
and  unknown.  In  the  Turin  Gallery  there  is  an  Assumption 
of  the  Magdalene  by  Denis  Calvaert,  admirably  painted,  in 
which  she  is  carried  up  by  four  Apollo-like  angels,  who,  with 
their  outstretched  arms,  form  a  sort  of .  throne  on  which  she  is 
seated :  she  is  herself  most  lovely,  draped  in  the  thin  undress 
of  a  Venus  ;  and  the  whole  composition,  at  first  view.,  brought 
to  my  fancy  the  idea  of  a  Venus  rising  from  the  sea,  throned 
in  her  shell  and  sustained  by  nymphs  and  cupids. 

In  general,  the  early  painters,  Albert  Diirer,  Vivarini,  Lo- 
renzo di  Credi,  Benedetto  Montagna,  represent  her  in  an  upright 
position,  with  hands  folded  in  prayer,  or  crossed  over  her 
bosom,  and  thus  soaring  upwards,  without  effort  of  will  or 
apparent  consciousness ;  while  the  painters  of  the  seventeenth 
century  (Avith  whom  this  was  a  favorite  subject)  strained  their 
imagination  to  render  the  form  and  attitude  voluptuously  grace- 
ful, and  to  vary  the  action  of  the  attendant  angels,  until,  in 
one  or  two  instances,  the  representation  became  at  once  absurdly 
prosaic  and  offensively  theatrical.  F.  Zucchero,  Cambiasi,  Lan- 
franco,  Carlo  Maratti,  have  all  given  us  versions  of  this  sub- 
ject in  a  florid,  mannered  style. 

1  [Rendered  into  English :  The  day  came  when  the  angels  bore  her  far  above 
the  rock-cave.    Through  storm  and  cold,  she  had  no  other  clothing  than  her 
hair,  which  covered  her  from  head  to  feet  like  a  golden  mantle,  it  was  so  beau- 
tiful and  blonde.] 

2  [Ribera's  Assumption  of  the  Magdalene  in  the  Louis  Philippe  collection  was 
purchased   at   the  sale  of   1853  by  Pearce.     Vide  Bedford's  Sales,  vol.  ii.  p. 
270.] 


370  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

Over  the  high  altar  of  the  Madeleine,  at  Paris,  is  the  same 
subject  in  a  marble  group,  by  Marochetti,  rather  above  life  size. 
Two  angels  bear  her  up,  while  on  each  side  an  archangel  kneels 
in  adoration. 

8.  The  Last  Communion  of  the  Magdalene  is  represented 
in  two  different  ways,  according  to  the  two  different  versions 
of  the  story  :  in  the  first,  she  expires  in  her  cave,  and  angels 
administer  the  last  sacrament ;   one  holds  a  taper,  another  pre- 
sents the  cup,  a  third  the  wafer.»     This  has  been  painted  by 
Domenichino.     In  the  other  version,  she  receives  the  sacrament 
from  the  hand  of  St.  Maximin,  who  wears  the  episcopal  robes, 
and  the  Magdalene  kneels  before  him,  half-naked,  emaciated, 
and  sustained  by  angels :  the  scene  is  the  porch  of  a  church. 

9.  The  Magdalene   dying  in   the  Wilderness,  extended  on 
the  bare   earth,  and  pressing   the  crucifix  to  her  bosom,  is  a 
frequent  subject  in  the  seventeenth  century.     One  of  the  finest 
examples  is  the  picture  of   Rustichino  in  the  Pitti,  Florence. 
The  well-known  "  Dying  Magdalene  "  of  Canova  has  the  same 
merits  and  defects  as  his  Penitent  Magdalene.      [This  statue 
was  executed  in  1822,  for  the  Earl  of  Liverpool.     Engraved 
by  Henry  Moses.] 

I  saw  a  picture  at  Bologna  by  Tiarini,  of  which  the  con- 
ception appeared  to  me  very  striking  and  poetical.  The  Virgin, 
"  La  Madre  Addolorata,"  is  seated,  and  holds  in  her  hand  the 
crown  of  thorns,  which  she  contemplates  with  a  mournful 
expression  ;  at  a  little  distance  kneels  Mary  Magdalene  with 
long  dishevelled  hair,  in  all  the  abandonment  of  grief.  St. 
John  stands  behind,  with  his  hands  clasped,  and  his  eyes  raised 
to  heaven. 

When  the  Magdalene  is  introduced  into  pictures  of  the 
"  Incredulity  of  Thomas,"  it  is  in  allusion  to  a  famous  par- 
allel in  one  of  the  Fathers,  in  which  it  is  insisted  "  that  the 
faith  of  Mary  Magdalene  and  the  doubts  of  Thomas  were 
equally  serviceable  to  the  cause  of  Christ." 

Among  the  many  miracles  imputed  to  the  Magdalene,  one 
only  has  become  popular  as  a  subject  of  Art.  Besides  being 
extremely  na'ive  and  poetical,  it  is  extremely  curious  as  illus- 
trating the  manners  of  the  time.  It  was  probably  fabricated 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  intended  as  a  kind  of  parable, 


ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE  371 

to  show  that  those  who  trusted  in  Mary  Magdalene,  and  in- 
voked her  aid,  might  in  all  cases  reckon  upon  her  powerful 
intercession.  It  is  thus  related  :  — 

"  Soon  after  Mary  Magdalene  landed  in  Provence,  a  certain 
prince  of  that  country  arrived  in  the  city  of  Marseilles  with 
his  wife,  for  the  purpose  of  sacrificing  to  the  gods  ;  but  they 
were  dissuaded  from  doing  so  by  the  preaching  of  Mary  Mag- 
dalene :  and  the  prince  one  day  said  to  the  saint,  '  We  greatly 
desire  to  have  a  son.  Canst  thou  obtain  for  us  that  grace 
from  the  God  whom  thou  preachest  ?  '  And  the  Magdalene 
replied,  '  If  thy  prayer  be  granted,  wilt  thou  then  believe  ? ' 
And  he  answered,  '  Yes,  I  will  believe.'  But  shortly  after- 
wards, as  he  still  doubted,  he  resolved  to  sail  to  Jerusalem  to 
visit  St.  Peter,  and  to  find  out  whether  his  preaching  agreed 
with  that  of  Mary  Magdalene.  His  wife  resolved  to  accom- 
pany him  :  but  the  husband  said,  '  How  shall  that  be  possible, 
seeing  that  thou  art  with  child,  and  the  dangers  of  the  sea  are 
very  great  ? '  But  she  insisted,  and,  throwing  herself  at  his 
feet,  she  obtained  her  desire.  Then,  having  laden  a  vessel  Avith 
all  that  was  necessary,  they  set  sail,  and  when  a  day  and  a  night 
Avere  come  and  gone,  there  arose  a  terrible  storm.  The  poor 
woman  was  seized  prematurely  with  the  pains  of  childbirth ; 
in  the  midst  of  the  tempest  she  brought  forth  her  first-born 
son,  and  then  died.  The  miserable  father,  seeing  his  wife 
dead,  and  his  child  deprived  of  its  natural  solace,  and  crying 
for  food,  wrung  his  hands  in  despair,  and  knew  not  what  to 
do.  And  the  sailors  said,  '  Let  us  throw  this  dead  body  into 
the  sea,  for  as  long  as  it  remains  on  board  the  tempest  will  not 
abate.'  But  the  prince,  by  his  entreaties,  and  by  giving  them 
money,  restrained  them  for  a  while.  Just  then,  for  so  it 
pleased  God,  they  arrived  at  a  rocky  island,  and  the  prince 
laid  the  body  of  his  wife  on  the  shore,  and,  taking  the  infant 
in  his  arms,  he  wept  greatly,  and  said,  '  0  Mary  Magdalene  ! 
to  my  grief  and  sorrow  didst  thou  come  to  Marseilles.  Why 
didst  thou  ask  thy  God  to  give  me  a  son  only  that  I  might 
lose  both  son  and  wife  together  ?  O  Mary  Magdalene !  have 
pity  on  my  grief,  and  if  thy  prayers  may  avail,  save  at  least 
the  life  of  my  child !  '  Then  he  laid  down  the  infant  on  the 
bosom  of  the  mother,  and  covered  them  both  with  his  cloak, 
and  went  on  his  way,  weeping.  And  when  the  prince  and 
his  attendants  had  arrived  at  Jerusalem,  St.  Peter  showed  him 


372  ST.   MARY   MAGDALENE 

all  the  places  where  our  Saviour  had  performed  his  miracles, 
and  the  hill  on  which  he  had  been  crucified,  and  the  spot  from 
whence  he  had  ascended  into  heaven.  Having  been  instructed 
in  the  faith  by  St.  Peter,  at  the  end  of  two  years  the  prince 
embarked  to  return  to  his  own  country,  and  passing  near  to 
the  island  in  which  he  had  left  his  wife,  he  landed  in  order 
to  weep  upon  her  grave. 

"  Now,  wonderful  to  relate !  —  his  infant  child  had  been 
preserved  alive  by  the  prayers  of  the  blessed  Mary  Magda- 
lene :  and  he  was  accustomed  to  run  about  on  the  sands  of  the 
seashore,  to  gather  up  pebbles  and  shells ;  and  when  the  child, 
who  had  never  beheld  a  man,  perceived  the  strangers,  he  was 
afraid,  and  ran  and  hid  himself  under  the  cloak  which  cov- 
ered his  dead  mother ;  and  the  father,  and  all  who  were  with 
him,  were  filled  with  astonishment;  but  their  surprise  was 
still  greater  when  the  woman  opened  her  eyes,  and  stretched 
out  her  arms  to  her  husband.  Then  they  offered  up  thanks, 
and  all  returned  together  to  Marseilles,  where  they  fell  at  the 
feet  of  Mary  Magdalene,  and  received  baptism.  From  that 
time  forth,  all  the  people  of  Marseilles  and  the  surrounding 
country  became  Christians." 

The  picturesque  capabilities  of  this  extravagant  but  beauti- 
ful legend  will  immediately  suggest  themselves  to  the  fancy  — 
the  wild  seashore  —  the  lovely  naked  infant  wandering  on  the 
beach  —  the  mother,  slumbering  the  sleep  of  death,  covered 
with  the  mysterious  drapery  —  the  arrival  of  the  mariners  — 
what  opportunity  for  scenery  and  grouping,  color  and  ex- 
pression !  It  was  popular  in  the  Giotto  school,  which  arose 
and  flourished  just  about  the  period  when  the  enthusiasm  for 
Mary  Magdalene  was  at  its  height ;  but  later  painters  have 
avoided  it,  or,  rather,  it  was  not  sufficiently  accredited  for  a 
Church  legend ;  and  I  have  met  with  no  example  later  than 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

The  old  fresco  [in  the  Rinuccini  Chapel  of]  S.  Croce  at 
Florence  will  give  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  sub- 
ject was  usually  treated.  In  the  foreground  is  a  space  repre- 
senting an  island ;  water  flowing  round  it,  the  water  being 
indicated  by  many  strange  fishes.  On  the  island  a  woman  lies' 
extended  with  her  hands  crossed  upon  her  bosom  ;  an  infant 
lifts  up  the  mantle,  and  seems  to  show  her  to  a  man  bending 
over  her;  the  father  on  his  knees,  with  hands  joined,  looks 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  373 

devoutly  up  to  heaven ;  four  others  stand  behind  expressing 
astonishment  or  fixed  attention.  In  the  distance  is  a  ship,  in 
which  sits  a  man  with  a  long  white  beard,  in  red  drapery ; 
beside  him  another  in  dark  drapery  ;  beyond  is  a  view  of  a 
port  with  a  lighthouse,  intended,  I  presume,  for  Marseilles. 
The  story  is  here  told  in  a  sort  of  Chinese  manner  as  regards 
the  drawing,  composition,  and  perspective  ;  but  the  figures  and 
heads  are  expressive  and  significant. 

In  the  Chapel  of  the  Magdalene  [San  Francesco],  Assisi, 
the  same  subject  is  given  with  some  variation.  The  bark 
containing  the  pilgrims  is  guided  by  an  angel,  and  the  infant 
is  seated  by  the  head  of  the  mother,  as  if  watching  her.  [Va- 
riously attributed  to  Buffalmacco  or  to  some  pupil  of  Giotto, 
perhaps  Puccio.] 

The  life  of  Mary  Magdalene  in  a  series  of  subjects,  min- 
gling the  scriptural  and  legendary  incidents,  may  often  be  found 
in  the  old  French  and  Italian  churches,  more  especially  in  the 
chapels  dedicated  to  her  ;  and  I  should  think  that  among  the 
remains  of  ancient  painting  now  in  course  of  discovery  in  our 
own  sacred  edifices  they  cannot  fail  to  occur.1  In  the  mural 
frescoes,  in  the  altar-pieces,  the  stained  glass,  and  the  sculp- 
ture of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  such  a  series 
perpetually  presents  itself  ;  and,  well  or  ill  executed,  will  in 
general  be  found  to  comprise  the  following  scenes :  — 

1.  Her  conversion  at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour.  2.  Christ 
entertained  in  the  house  of  Martha ;  Mary  sits  at  his  feet  to 
hear  his  words.  3.  The  raising  of  Lazarus.  4.  Mary  Magda- 
lene and  her  companions  embark  in  a  vessel  without  sails,  oars, 
or  rudder.  5.  Steered  by  an  angel,  they  land  at  Marseilles.  6. 
Mary  Magdalene  preaches  to  the  people.  7.  The  miracle  of 
the  mother  and  child.  8.  The  penance  of  the  Magdalene  in 
a  desert  cave.  9.  She  is  carried  up  in  the  arms  of  angels. 
10.  She  receives  the  sacrament  from  the  hands  of  an  angel 
or  from  St.  Maximin.  11.  She  dies,  and  angels  bear  her  spirit 
to  heaven. 

There  is  a  fine  series  of  frescoes  from  the  life  of  Mary 
Magdalene  by  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cris- 
toforo  at  Vercelli.  1.  Mary  and  Martha  are  seated,  with  a 

1  There  are  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  churches  in  England  dedicated  in 
honor  of  Mary  Magdalene. 


374  ST.    MARY   MAGDALENE 

crowd  of  others,  listening  to  Christ,  who  is  preaching  in  a 
pulpit.  Martha  is  veiled  and  thoughtful :  Mary,  richly  dressed, 
looks  up  eagerly.  Half  destroyed.  2.  Mary  anoints  the 
feet  of  the  Saviour ;  she  lays  her  head  down  on  his  foot  with 
a  tender  humiliation  :  in  the  background  the  Maries  at  the 
sepulchre  and  the  "Noli  me  tangere."  This  also  in  great  part 
ruined.  3.  The  legend  of  the  Prince  of  Provence  and  his 
wife,  who  are  kneeling  before  Lazarus  and  Mary.  Martha  is 
to  the  left,  and  Marcella  behind.  In  the  background  are  the 
various  scenes  of  the  legend  —  the  embarkation  ;  the  scene  on 
the  island  ;  the  arrival  at  Jerusalem  ;  the  return  to  Marseilles 
with  the  child.  This  is  one  of  the  best  preserved,  and  the 
heads  are  remarkably  fine.  4.  Mary  Magdalene  sustained  by 
angels,  her  feet  resting  between  the  wings  of  one  of  them,  is 
borne  upwards.  All  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  is  destroyed. 
In  the  background  are  the  last  communion  -and  burial  of  the 
Magdalene.  I  saw  these  frescoes  in  October,  1855.  They 
suffered  greatly  from  the  siege  in  1638,  when  several  bombs 
shattered  this  part  of  the  wall,  and  will  soon  cease  to  exist. 
They  are  engraved  in  their  present  state  in  Pianazzi's  "  Opere 
di  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,"  No.  19. 

The  subjects  vary  of  course  in  number  and  in  treatment,  but, 
with  some  attention  to  the  foregoing  legend,  they  will  easily 
be  understood  and  discriminated.  Such  a  series  was  painted 
by  Giotto  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Bargello  at  Florence  (where 
the  portrait  of  Dante  was  lately  [1840]  discovered),  but  they 
are  nearly  obliterated ;  the  miracle  of  the  mother  and  child  is, 
however,  to  be  distinguished  on  the  left  near  the  entrance. 
The  treatment  of  the  whole  has  been  imitated  in  the  Kinuc- 
cini  Chapel  at  Florence,  and  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Magdalene 
at  Assisi ;  on  the  windows  of  the  cathedrals  of  Chartres  and 
Bourges  ;  and  in  a  series  of  bas-reliefs  round  the  porch  of  the 
Certosa  of  Pavia,  executed  in  the  classical  style  of  the  six- 
teenth century. 


On  reviewing  generally  the  infinite  variety  which  has  been 
given  to  these  favorite  subjects,  the  life  and  penance  of  the  Mag- 
dalene, I  must  end  where  I  began  —  in  how  few  instances  has 
the  result  been  satisfactory  to  mind  or  heart,  or  soul  or  sense  ! 
Many  have  well  represented  the  particular  situation,  the  ap- 


ST.   MARY  MAGDALENE  375 

propriate  sentiment,  the  sorrow,  the  hope,  the  devotion  ;  but 
who  has  given  us  the  character?  A  noble  creature,  with 
strong  sympathies  and  a  strong  will,  with  powerful  faculties  of 
every  kind,  working  for  good  or  evil,  —  such  a  woman  Mary 
Magdalene  must  have  been,  even  in  her  humiliation ;  and  the 
feeble,  girlish,  commonplace,  and  even  vulgar  women  who 
appear  to  have  been  usually  selected  as  models  by  the  artists, 
turned  into  Magdalenes  by  throwing  up  their  eyes  and  letting 
down  their  hair,  ill  represent  the  enthusiastic  convert  or  the 
majestic  patroness. 

I  must  not  quit  the  subject  of  the  Magdalene  without  some 
allusion  to  those  wild  legends  which  suppose  a  tender  attach- 
ment (but  of  course  wholly  pure  and  Platonic)  to  have  existed 
between  her  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist.1  In  the  enthu- 
siasm which  Mary  Magdalene  excited  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
no  supposition  that  tended  to  exalt  her  was  deemed  too  extrava- 
gant :  some  of  her  panegyrists  go  so  far  as  to  insist  that  the 
marriage  at  Cana,  which  our  Saviour  and  his  mother  honored 
by  their  presence,  was  the  marriage  of  St.  John  with  the  Mag- 
dalene ;  and  that  Christ  repaired  to  the  wedding-feast  on  pur- 
pose to  prevent  the  accomplishment  of  the  marriage,  having 
destined  both  to  a  state  of  greater  perfection.  This  fable  was 
never  accepted  by  the-Church  ;  and  among  the  works  of  Art 
consecrated  to  religious  purposes  I  have  never  met  with  any 
which  places  St.  John  and  the  Magdalene  in  particular  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  except  when  they  are  seen  together  at  the 
foot  of  the  cross,  or  lamenting  with  the  Virgin  over  the  body 
of  the  Saviour :  but  such  was  the  popularity  of  these  extraor- 
dinary legends  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  and  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  that  I  think  it  possible 
such  may  exist,  and,  for  want  of  this  key,  may  appear  hope- 
lessly enigmatical. 

In  a  series  of  eight  subjects  which  exhibit  the  life  of  St. 
John  prefixed  to  a  copy  of  the  Revelation,  there  is  one  which 
I  think  admits  of  this  interpretation.  (Paris,  Bibliotheque 
du  Roi,  MS.,  fourteenth  century.)  The  scene  is  the  inte- 

1  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist. ;  Molanus,  lib.  iv.,  de  Hist.  Sacrar~S.  Mag.,  cap.  xx. 
y>,  428;  Thomasium,  prefat.  78.  The  authority  usually  cited  is  Abdius,  a  writer 
who  pretended  to  have  lived  in  the  first  century,  and  whom  Bayle  styles  "the 
most  impudent  of  legendary  impostors." 


376  ST.   MARTHA 

rior  of  a  splendid  building  sustained  by  pillars.  St.  John  is 
baptizing  a  beautiful  woman,  who  is  sitting  in  a  tub ;  she  has 
long  golden  hair.  On  the  outside  of  the  building  seven  men 
are  endeavoring  to  see  what  is  going  forward :  one  peeps 
through  the  key-hole ;  one  has  thrown  himself  flat  on  the 
ground,  and  has  his  eye  to  an  aperture  ;  a  third,  mounted  on 
the  shoulders  of  another,  is  trying  to  look  in  at  a  window ;  a 
fifth,  who  cannot  get  near  enough,  tears  his  hair  in  an  agony 
of  impatience ;  and  another  is  bawling  into  the  ear  of  a  deaf 
and  blind  comrade  a  description  of  what  he  has  seen.  The  ex- 
ecution is  French,  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  the  taste,  it  will 
be  said,  is  also  French  ;  the  figures  are  drawn  with  a  pen  and 
slightly  tinted :  the  design  is  incorrect ;  but  the  vivacity  of 
gesture  and  expression,  though  verging  on  caricature,  is  so 
true,  and  so  comically  dramatic,  and  the  whole  composition 
so  absurd,  that  it  is  impossible  to  look  at  it  without  a  smile. 

ST.  MARTHA 

ItaL  Santa  Marta,  Vergine,  Albergatrice  di  Cristo.  Fr.  Sainte 
Marthe,  la  Travailleuse.  Patroness  of  cooks  and  housewives. 
(June  29,  A.  D.  84.) 

Martha  has  shared  in  the  veneration  paid  to  her  sister.  The 
important  part  assigned  to  her  in  the^  history  of  Mary  has 
already  been  adverted  to  ;  she  is  always  represented  as  the 
instrument  through  whom  Mary  was  converted,  the  one  who 
led  her  first  to  the  feet  of  the  Saviour.  "  Which  thing,"  says 
the  story,  "  should  not  be  accounted  as  the  least  of  her  merits, 
seeing  that  Martha  was  a  chaste  and  prudent  virgin,  and  the 
other  publicly  contemned  for  her  evil  life  ;  notwithstanding 
which,  Martha  did  not  despise  her,  nor  reject  her  as  a  sister, 
but  wept  for  her  shame  and  admonished  her  gently  and  with 
persuasive  words ;  and  reminded  her  of  her  noble  birth,  to 
which  she  was  a  disgrace,  and  that  Lazarus,  their  brother,  be- 
ing a  soldier,  would  certainly  get  into  trouble  on  her  account. 
So  she  prevailed,  and  conducted  her  sister  to  the  presence  of 
Christ,  and  afterwards,  as  it  is  well  known,  she  lodged  and 
entertained  the  Saviour  in  her  own  house."  (II  perfetto  Le- 
gendario.) 

According  to  the  Provencal  legend,  while  Mary  Magdalene 
converted  the  people  of  Marseilles,  Martha  preached  to  the 


ST.   MARTHA  377 

people  of  Aix  and  its  vicinity.  In  those  days  the  country  was 
ravaged  by  a  fearful  dragon,  called  the  Tarasque,  which  during 
the  day  lay  concealed  in  the  river  Rhone.  Martha  overcame 
this  monster  by  sprinkling  him  with  holy  water,  and  having 
bound  him  with  her  girdle  (or,  as  others  say,  her  garter),  the 
people  speedily  put  an  end  to  him.  The  scene  of  this  legend 
is  now  the  city  of  Tarascon,  where  there  is,  or  was,  a  mag- 
nificent church,  dedicated  to  St.  Martha,  and  richly  endowed 
by  Louis  XI. 

The  same  legends  assure  us  that  St.  Martha  was  the  first 
who  founded  a  monastery  for  women ;  the  first,  after  the  blessed 
Mother  of  Christ,  who  vowed  her  virginity  to  God  ;  and  that 
when  she  had  passed  tnany  years  in  prayer  and  good  works, 
feeling  that  her  end  was  near,  she  desired  to  be  carried  to  a  spot 
where  she  could  see  the  glorious  sun  in  heaven,  and  that  they 
should  read  to  her  the  history  of  the  passion  of  Christ ;  and 
when  they  came  to  the  words,  "  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  com- 
mend my  spirit,"  she  died. 

As  Mary  Magdalene  is  the  patroness  of  repentant  frailty,  so 
Martha  is  the  especial  patroness  of  female  discretion  and  good 
housekeeping.  In  this  character,  she  is  often  represented  with 
a  skimmer  or  ladle  in  her  hand,  or  a  large  bunch  of  keys  is 
attached  to  her  girdle.  For  example,  in  a  beautiful  old  Ger- 
man altar-piece  attributed  to  Albert  Dlirer  (Queen's  Gallery), 
she  is  standing  in  a  magnificent  dress,  a  jewelled  turban,  and 
holding  a  well-known  implement  of  cookery  in  her  hand.  In 
a  missal"  of  Henry  VIII.  (Bodleian  MSS.,  Oxford),  she  is  rep- 
resented with  the  same  utensil,  and  her  name  is  inscribed  be- 
neath. In  general,  however,  her  dress  is  not  rich  but  homely, 
and  her  usual  attributes  as  patron  saint  are  the  pot  of  holy 
water,  the  asperge  in  her  hand,  and  a  dragon  bound  at  her  feet. 
In  the  chapels  dedicated  to  the  Magdalene,  she  finds  her  appro- 
priate place  as  pendant  to  her  sister,  generally  distinguished  by 
her  close  coif  and  by  being  draped  in  blue  or  dark  brown  or 
gray  ;  while  the  Magdalene  is  usually  habited  in  red.  When 
attended  by  her  dragon,  St.  Martha  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  St.  Margaret,  who  is  also  accompanied  by  a  dragon  ;  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  St.  Margaret  bears  a  crucifix 
or  palm,  and  St.  Martha  the  pot  of  holy  water ;  and  in  gen- 
eral the  early  painters  have  been  careful  to  distinguish  these 
attributes. 


378  ST.   LAZARUS 

St.  Martha,  besides  being  a  model  of  female  discretion,  so- 
briety, and  chastity,  and  the  patroness  of  good  housewives, 
was,  according  to  the  old  legends,  the  same  woman  who  was 
healed  by  Christ,  and  who  in  gratitude  erected  to  his  honor  a 
bronze  statue,  which  statue  is  said  to  have  existed  in  the 
time  of  Eusebius,  and  to  have  been  thrown  down  by  Julian 
the  Apostate.1 

When  Martha  and  Mary  stand  together  as  patronesses,  one 
represents  the  active,  the  other  the  contemplative,  Christian 
life. 

Martha  is  generally  introduced  among  the  holy  women  who 
attend  the  crucifixion  and  entombment  of  our  Lord.  In  a 
most  beautiful  Entombment  by  Ambrogio  Lorenzetti,  Martha 
kisses  the  hand  of  the  Saviour,  while  Mary  Magdalene  is  seen 
behind  with  outspread  arms  :  Lazarus  and  Maximin  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  Saviour. 

ST.  LAZARUS 

Lazarus,  the  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  is  revered  as  the 
first  bishop  and  patron  saint  of  Marseilles,  and  is  generally 
represented  with  the  mitre  and  stole.  There  are  at  least  fifty 
saints  who  wear  the  same  attire  ;  but  when  a  figure  in  episco- 
pal robes  is  introduced  into  the  same  picture,  or  the  same  series, 
with  Martha  and  Mary,  it  may  be  presumed,  if  not  otherwise 
distinguished,  to  be  St.  Lazarus  :  sometimes,  but  rarely,  the 
introduction  of  a  bier,  or  his  resurrection,  in  the  background, 
serves  to  fix  the  identity.  Grouped  with  these  three  saints, 
we  occasionally  find  St.  Marcella  (or  Martilla),  who  accompa- 
nied them  from  the  East,  but  who  is  not  distinguished  by  any 
attribute ;  nor  is  anything  particular  related  of  her,  except 
that  she  wrote  the  life  of  Martha,  and  preached  the  Gospel  in 
Sclavonia. 

There  are  beautiful  full-length  figures  of  Mary,  Martha, 
Lazarus,  and  Marcella  in  the  Brera  at  Milan,  —  painted  by  one 
of  the  Luini  school,  and  treated  in  a  very  classical  and  noble 

1  It  is  perhaps  in  reference  to  this  tradition  that  St.  Martha  has  become  the 
patroness  of  an  order  of  charitable  women,  who  serve  in  the  hospitals,  partic- 
ularly the  military  hospitals,  in  France  and  elsewhere  —  her  brother  Lazarus 
having  been  a  soldier. 


ST.   MARY   OF  EGYPT  379 

style,  — draped,  and  standing  in  niches  to  represent  statues.  At 
Munich  are  the  separate  figures  of  Mary,  Martha,  and  Lazarus, 
by  Grlinewald  ;  Lazarus  is  seen  standing  by  his  bier  ;  Mary, 
in  the  rich  costume  of  a  German  lady  of  rank,  presents  her 
vase ;  and  Martha  is  habited  like  a  German  hausfrau,  with 
her  dragon  at  her  feet.  They  are  much  larger  than  life, 
admirably  painted,  and  full  of  character,  though  somewhat 
grotesque  in  treatment. 

Over  the  altar  of  the  church  "La  Major,"  at  Marseilles, 
stands  Lazarus  as  bishop ;  Mary  on  the  right,  and  Martha  on 
the  left ;  underneath  these  three  statues  runs  a  series  of  bas- 
reliefs  containing  the  history  of  Lazarus.  1.  He  is  recalled  to 
life.  2.  Seated  on  the  edge  of  his  tomb,  he  addresses  the 
spectators.  3.  He  entertains  Christ.  4.  The  arrival  at  Mar- 
seilles. 5.  He  preaches  to  the  people.  6.  He  is  consecrated 
bishop.  7.  He  suffers  martyrdom. 

In  a  tabernacle  or  triptica  by  Niccolo  Frumenti  (A.  D.  1461), 
the  central  compartment  represents  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  who 
has  the  truest  and  most  horrid  expression  of  death  and  dawn- 
ing life  I  ever  beheld.  On  the  volet  to  the  right  is  i!he  supper 
in  the  house  of  Levi,  and  the  Magdalene  anointing  the  feet  of 
the  Saviour  ;  on  the  left  volet,  Martha  meets  him  on  his  arri- 
val at  Bethany  —  "  Lord,  if  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother 
had  not  died?'  (Uffizi,  Florence.) 

In  the  Chapel  of  Mary  Magdalene  at  Assisi,  we  find,  besides 
the  history  of  her  life,  full-length  figures  of  Mary,  Martha, 
Lazarus,  and  Maximin.  Mary,  a  beautiful  dignified  Ijgure,  as 
usual  in  rich  red  drapery,  stands  to  the  right  of  the  altar,  hold- 
ing out  her  hand  to  a  kneeling  Franciscan  ;  on  the  left  Martha 
stands  in  gray  drapery  with  a  close  hood,  Lazarus  and  Max- 
imin as  bishops. 

This  will  give  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  these  person- 
ages are  either  grouped  together  or  placed  in  connection  with 
each  other. 

ST.  MAKY  OF  EGYPT 

Lnt.  Santa  Maria  Egiziaca  Penitente.     Fr.  Sainte  Marie  1'Egyp- 
tienne,  La  Gipesienne,  La  Jussienne.     (April  2,  A.  D.  433.) 

I  place  the  story  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt  here,  for  though 
she  had  no  real  connection  with  the  Magdalene,  in  works  of 


380  ST.   MARY   OF   EGYPT 

art  they  are  perpetually  associated  as  les  bienheureuses  pecker- 
esses,  and  in  their  personal  and  pictorial  attributes  not  unfre- 
quently  confounded.  The  legend  of  Mary  Egyptiuca  is  long 
anterior  to  that  of  Mary  Magdalene.  It  was  current  in  a 
written  form  so  early  as  the  sixth  century,  being  then  re- 
ceived as  a  true  history  ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  origi- 
nally one  of  those  instructive  parables  or  religious  romances 
which,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  were  composed  and 
circulated  for  the  edification  of  the  pious.  In  considering  the 
manners  of  that  time,  we  may  easily  believe  that  it  may  have 
had  some  foundation  in  fact.  That  a  female  anchoret  of  the 
name  of  Mary  lived  and  died  in  a  desert  of  Palestine  near 
the  river  Jordan  —  that  she  there  bewailed  her  sins  in  solitude 
for  a  long  course  of  years,  and  was  accidentally  discovered  — 
is  a  very  ancient  tradition,  supported  by  contemporary  evi- 
dence. The  picturesque,  miraculous,  and  romantic  incidents 
with  which  the  story  has  been  adorned  appear  to  have  been 
added  to  enhance  the  interest ;  and,  in  its  present  form,  the 
legend  is  attributed  to  St.  Jerome; 

"  Towards  the.  year  of  our  Lord  365,  there  dwelt  in  Alex- 
andria a  woman  whose  name  was  Mary,  and  who  in  the  infamy 
of  her  life  far  exceeded  Mary  Magdalene.  After  passing  sev- 
enteen years  in  every  species  of  vice,  it  happened  that  one 
day,  while  roving  along  the  seashore,  she  beheld  a  ship  ready 
to  sail,  and  a  large  company  preparing  to  embark.  She  in- 
quired whither  they  were  going  ?  They  replied  that  they 
were  goipg  up  to  Jerusalem,  to  celebrate  the  feast  of  the  true 
cross.  She  was  seized  with  a  sudden  desire  to  accompany 
them ;  but  having  no  money,  she  paid  the  price  of  her  pas- 
sage by  selling  herself  to  the  sailors  and  pilgrims,  whom  she 
allured  to  sin  by  every  means  in  her  power.  On  their  arrival 
at  Jerusalem,  she  joined  the  crowds  of  worshippers  who  had 
assembled  to  enter  the  church ;  but  all  her  attempts  to  pass 
the  threshold  were  in  vain ;  whenever  she  thought  to  enter 
the  porch,  a  supernatural  power  drove  her  back  in  shame,  in 
terror,  in  despair.  Struck  by  the  remembrance  of  her  sins, 
and  filled  with  repentance,  she  humbled  herself  and  prayed 
for  help ;  the  interdiction  was  removed,  and  she  entered  the 
church  of  God,  crawling  on  her  knees.  Thenceforward  she 
renounced  her  wicked  and  shameful  life,  and,  buying  at  a 
baker's  three  small  loaves,  she  wandered  forth  into  solitude, 


ST.   MARY   OF   EGYPT  381 

and  never  stopped  or  reposed  till  slie  had  penetrated  into  the 
deserts  beyond  the  Jordan,  where  she  remained  in  severest 
penance,  living  on  roots  and  fruits,  and  drinking  water  only ; 
her  garments  dropped  away  in  rags  piecemeal,  leaving  her 
unclothed ;  and  she  prayed  fervently  not  to  be  left  thus  ex- 
posed :  suddenly  her  hair  grew  so  long  as  to  form  a  covering 
for  her  whole  person  (or,  according  to  another  version,  an 
angel  brought  her  a  garment  from  heaven).  Thus  she  dwelt 
in  the  wilderness  in  prayer  and  penance,  supported  only  by 
her  three  small  loaves,  which,  like  the  widow's  meal,  failed 
her  not,  until,  after  the  lapse  of  forty-seven  years,  she  was 
discovered  by  a  priest  named  Zosimus.  Of  him  she  requested 
silence,  and  that  he  woxild  return  at  the  end  of  a  year,  and 
bring  with  him  the  elements  of  the  holy  sacrament,  that  she 
might  confess  and  communicate  before  she  was  released  from 
earth.  And  Zosimus  obeyed  her,  and  returned  after  a  year ; 
but  not  being  able  to  pass  the  Jordan,  the  penitent,  super- 
naturally  assisted,  passed  over  the  water  to  him ;  and  having 
received  the  sacrament  with  tears,  she  desired  the  priest  to 
leave  her  once  more  to  her  solitude,  and  to  return  in  a  year 
from  that  time.  And  when  he  returned  he  found  her  dead, 
her  hands  crossed  on  her  bosom.  And  he  wept  greatly ;  and, 
looking  around,  he  saw  written  in  the  sand  these  words, — 
'  0  Father  Zosimus,  bury  the  body  of  the  poor  sinner,  Mary 
of  Egypt !  Give  earth  to  earth,  and  dust  to  dust,  for  Christ's 
sake ! '  He  endeavored  to  obey  this  last  command,  but  being 
full  of  years,  and  troubled  and  weak,  his  strength  failed  him, 
and  a  lion  came  out  of  the  wood  and  aided  him,  digging  with 
his  paws  till  the  grave  was  sufficiently  large  to  receive  the 
body  of  the  saint,  which  being  committed  to  the  earth,  the 
lion  retired  gently,  and  the  old  man  returned  home  praising 
God,  who  had  shown  mercy  to  the  penitent." 

In  single  figures  and  devotional  pictures,  Mary  of  Egypt  is 
portrayed  as  a  meagre,  wasted,  aged  woman,  with  long  hair, 
and  holding  in  her  hand  three  small  loaves.  Sometimes  she 
is  united  with  Mary  Magdalene,  as  joint  emblems  of  female 
penitence ;  and  not  in  painting  only,  but  in,  poetry,  — 

Like  redeemed  Magdalene, 
Or  that  Egyptian  penitent,  whose  tears 
Fretted  the  rock,  and  moisten'd  round  her  cave 
The  thirsty  desert. 


382  ST.   MARY   OF   EGYPT 

Thus  they  stand  together  in  a  little  rare  print  by  Marc  Antonio, 
the  one  distinguished  by  her  vase,  the  other  by  her  three 
loaves.  Sometimes,  when  they  stand  together,  Mary  Magda- 
lene is  young,  beautiful,  richly  dressed,  and  Mary  of  Egypt, 
a  squalid,  meagre,  old  woman,  covered  with  rags,  as  in  a  rare 
and  curious  print  by  Israel  von  Meckenen.  (British  Museum.) 

Pictures  from  her  life  are  not  common.  The  earliest  I  have 
met  with  is  the  series  [by  Giotto]  painted  on  the  walls  of  the 
Chapel  of  the  Bargello,  at  Florence,  above  the  life  of  Mary 
Magdalene  :  they  had  been  whitewashed  over.  In  seeking  for 
the  portrait  of  Dante,  this  whitewash  has  been  in  part  removed ; 
and  it  is  only  just  possible  for  those  acquainted  with  the  legend 
to  trace  in  several  compartments  the  history  of  Mary  of  Egypt. 

1.  .Detached    subjects  are   sometimes    met  with.       In  the 
Church  of  San  Pietro-in-P6,  at  Cremona,  they  preserve  relics 
said  to  be  those  of  Mary  of  Egypt ;  and  over  the  altar  there  is 
a  large  picture  by  Malosso,  representing  the  saint  at  the  door 
of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  repulsed  by  a  miraculous 
power.      She  is  richly  dressed,  with  a  broad  brimmed  hat,  and 
stands  on  the  step,  as  one  endeavoring  to  enter,  while  several 
persons  look  on,  —  some  amazed,  others  mocking. 

2.  Mary  of  Egypt  doing  penance  in  the  desert  is  easily  con- 
founded with  the   penitent   Magdalene.      Where  there  is  no 
skull,   no  vase  of  ointment,  no  crucifix  near  her,  Where  the 
penitent  is  aged,  or  at  least  not  young  and  beautiful,  with 
little  or  no  drapery,  and  black  or  gray  hair,  the  picture  may 
be  presumed  to  represent  Mary  of  Egypt,  and  not  the  Magda- 
lene, however  like  in  situation  and  sentiment.     There  [was]  a 
large  fine  picture  of  this  subject  at  Alton  Towers.1 

3.  The  first  meeting  of  Mary  and  the  hermit  Zosimus  has 
been  painted  by  Eibera :  in  this  picture  her  hair  is  gray  and 
short,  her  skin  dark  and  sunburnt,  and  she  is  clothed  in  rags. 

4.  In  another  picture  by  the  same  painter  she  is  passing 
over  the  Jordan  by  the  help  of  angels ;  she  is  seen  floating  in 
the  air  with  her  hands  clasped,  and  Zosimus  is  kneeling  by. 
This  subject  might  easily  be  confounded  with  the  Assumption 
of   the  Magdalene, » but  the   sentiment  ought   to   distinguish 
them ;    for,  instead  of  the  ecstatic  trance  of  the  Magdalene, 
we  have  merely  a  miraculous  incident :  the  figure  is  but  little 

1  [The  Alton  Towers  Collection  was  dispersed  by  a  sale  in  1857.] 


ST.    MARY    OF   EGYPT  383 

raised  above  the  waters,  and  the  hermit  is  kneeling  on  the 
shore.  It  was  in  the  Spanish  Gallery  in  the  Louvre,  now  dis- 
persed. 

5.  St.  Mary  receives  the  last  communion  from  the  hands  of 
Zosimus.      I  have  known  this  subject  to  be  confounded  with 
the  last  communion  of  the  Magdalene.      The  circumstances  of 
the  scene,  as  well  as  the  character,  should  be  attended  to. 
Mary  of  Egypt  receives  the  sacrament  in  the  desert ;  a  rivet 
is  generally  in  the  background :    Zosimus  is  an  aged  monk. 
Where  the  Magdalene  receives  the  sacrament  from  the  hands 
of  Maximin,  the  scene  is  a  portico  or  chapel  with  rich  archi- 
tecture, and  Maximin  wears  the  habit  of  a  bishop. 

6.  The  death   of    Mary   of   Egypt.      Zosimus  is  kneeling 
beside  her,  and  the   lion  is   licking  her  feet  or  digging  her 
grave.       The  presence  of  the  lion  distinguishes   this   subject 
from  the  death  of  Mary  Magdalene. 

St.  Mary  of  Egypt  was  early  a  popular  saint  in  France,  and 
particularly  venerated  by  the  Parisians,  till  eclipsed  by  the  in- 
creasing celebrity  of  the  Magdalene.  She  was  styled,  familiarly, 
La  Gipesienne  (the  Gipsy),  softened  by  time  into  La  Jus- 
sienne.  The  street  in  -which  stood  a  convent  of  reformed 
women,  dedicated  to  her,  is  still  La  Rue  Jussienne. 

We  find  her  whole  story  in  one  of  the  richly  painted  win- 
dows of  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres ;  and  again  in  the  "  Vitraux 
de  Bourges,"  where  the  inscription  underneath  is  written 
"  Segiptiaca." 

Among  the  best  modern  frescoes  which  I  saw  at  Paris,  was 
the  decoration  of  a  chapel  in  the  Church  of  St.  Merry,  dedi- 
cated to  Ste.  Marie  1'Egyptienne  :  the  religious  sentiment  and 
manner  of  middle  age  Art  are  as  usual  imitated,  but  with  a 
certain  unexpected  originality  in  the  conception  of  some  of  the 
subjects  which  pleased  me.  1.  On  the  wall,  to  the  right,  she 
stands  leaning  on  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  the  Madonna  in 
a  meditative  attitude,  and  having  the  dress  and  the  dark  com- 
plexion of  an  Egyptian  dancing-girl ;  a  crowd  of  people  are 
seen  behind  entering  the  gates  of  the  Temple,  at  which  she 
alone  has  been  repulsed.  2.  She  receives  the  communion  from 
the  hand  of  Zosimus,  and  is  buried  by  a  lion. 

On  the  left-hand  wall.  3.  Her  apotheosis.  She  is  borne 
aloft  by  many  angels,  two  of  whom  swing  censers,  and  below 
is  seen  the  empty  grave  watched  by  a  lion.  4.  Underneath  is 


384  ST.    MAEY   THE    PENITENT 

a  group  of  hermits,  to  whom  the  aged  Zosimus  is  relating  the 
story  of  the  penitence  and  death  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 

I  do  not  in  general  accept  modern  representations  as  authori- 
ties, nor  quote  them  as  examples ;  but  this  resuscitation  of 
Mary  of  Egypt  in  a  city  where  she  was  so  long  a  favorite 
saint  appears  to  me  a  curious  fact.  Her  real  existence  is 
doubted  even  by  the  writers  of  that  Church  which,  for  four- 
teen centuries,  has  celebrated  her  conversion  and  glorified  her 
name.  Yet  the  poetical,  the  moral  significance  of  her  story 
remains  ;  and,  as  I  have  reason  to  know,  can  still  impress  the 
fancy,  and  through  the  fancy  waken  the  conscience  and  touch 
the  heart. 

There  were  several  other  legends  current  in  the  early  ages 
of  Christianity,  promulgated,  it  should  seem,  with  the  distinct 
purpose  of  calling  the  frail  and  sinning  woman  to  repentance. 
If  these  were  not  pure  inventions,  if  the  names  of  these  beati- 
fied penitents  retained  in  the  offices  of  the  Church  must  be 
taken  as  evidence  that  they  did  exist,  it  is  not  less  certain  that 
the  prototype  in  all  these  cases  was  the  reclaimed  woman  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  that  it  was  the  pitying  charity  of  Christ  Avhich 
first  taught  men  and  angels  to  rejoice  over  the  sinner  that 
repenteth. 

ST.  MARY  THE  PENITENT 

The  legend  of  Mary,  the  niece  of  the  hermit  Abraham, 
(Santa  Maria  Penitente)  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of 
Mary  of  Egypt.  The  scene  of  this  story  is  placed  in  the  des- 
erts of  Syria.  The  anchoret  Abraham  had  a  brother,  who 
lived  in  the  world  and  possessed  great  riches,  and  when  he 
died,  leaving  an  only  daughter,  she  was  brought  to  her  uncle 
Abraham,  apparently  because  of  his  great  reputation  for  holi- 
ness, to  be  brought  up  as  he  should  think  fit.  The  ideas  of 
this  holy  man,  with  regard  to  education,  seem  to  have  been 
those  entertained  by  many  wise  and  religious  people  since  his 
time  ;  but  there  was  this  difference,  that  he  did  not  show  her 
the  steep  and  thorny  way  to  heaven,  and  choose  for  himself 
"  the  primrose  path  of  dalliance."  Instead  of  applying  to  his 
charge  a  code  of  morality  as  distinct  as  possible  from  his  own, 
he,  more  just,  only  brought  up  his  niece  in  the  same  ascetic 
principles  which  he  deemed  necessary  for  the  salvation  of  all 
men. 


ST.   MARY   THE   PENITENT  385 

Mary,  therefore,  being  brought  to  her  uncle  when  she  was 
only  seven  years  old,  he  built  a  cell  close  to  his  own,  in  which 
he  shut  her  up  ;  and,  through  a  little  window,  which  opened 
between  their  cells,  he  taught  her  to  say  her  prayers,  to  recite 
the  Psalter,  to  sing  hymns,  and  dedicated  her  to  a  life  of  holi- 
ness and  solitude,  praying  continually  that  she  might  be  de- 
livered from  the  snares  of  the  arch-enemy,  and  keeping  her 
far,  as  he  thought,  from  all  possibility  of  temptation  ;  while 
he  daily  instructed  her  to  despise  and  hate  all  the  pleasures 
and  vanities  of  the  world. 

Thus  Mary  grew  up  in  her  cell  till  she  was  twenty  years 
old ;  then  it  happened  that  a  certain  youth,  who  had  turned 
hermit  and  dwelt  in  that  desert,  came  to  visit  Abraham  to 
receive  his  instructions ;  and  he  beheld  through  the  window 
the  face  of  the  maiden  as  she  prayed  in  her  cell,  and  heard 
her  voice  as  she  sang  the  morning  and  the  evening  hymn ;  and 
he  was  inflamed  with  desire  of  her  beauty,  till  his  whole  heart 
became  as  a  furnace  for  the  love  of  her  ;  and  forgetting  his 
religious  vocation,  and  moved  thereto  by  the  devil,  he  tempted 
Mary,  and  she  fell.  When  she  came  to  herself,  her  heart  was 
troubled ;  she  beat  her  breast  and  wept  bitterly,  thinking  of 
what  she  had  been,  what  she  had  now  become  ;  and  she  de- 
spaired, and  said  in  her  heart,  "  For  me  there  is  no  hope,  no 
return  ;  shame  is  my  portion  evermore  ! "  So  she  fled,  not 
daring  to  meet  the  face  of  her  uncle,  and  went  to  a  distant 
place,  and  lived  a  life  of  sin  and  shame  for  two  years. 

Now,  on  the  same  night  that  she  fled  from  her  cell,  Abra- 
ham had  a  dream  ;  and  he  saw  in  his  dream  a  monstrous 
dragon,  who  came  to  his  cell,  and  finding  there  a  beautiful 
white  dove,  devoured  it,  and  returned  to  his  den.  When  the 
hermit  awoke  from  his  dream  he  was  perplexed,  and  knew  not 
what  it  might  portend ;  but  again  he  dreamed,  and  he  saw  the 
same  dragon,  and  he  put  his  foot  on  its  head,  and  crushed  it, 
and  took  from  its  maw  the  beautiful  dove,  and  put  it  in  his 
bosom,  and  it  came  to  life  again,  and  spread  its  wings  and  flew 
towards  heaven. 

Then  the  old  man  knew  that  this  must  relate  to  his  niece 
Mary  ;  so  he  took  up  his  staff,  and  went  forth  through  the 
world  seeking  her  everywhere.  At  length  he  found  her,  and 
seeing  her  overpowered  with  shame  and  despair,  he  exhorted 
her  to  take  courage,  and  comforted  her,  and  promised  to  take 


386  .  ST.   MAEY   THE   PENITENT 

her  sin  and  her  penance  on  himself.  She  wept  and  embraced 
his  knees,  and  said,  "  0  my  father !  if  thou  thinkest  there  is 
hope  for  me,  I  will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest,  and 
kiss  thy  footsteps  which  lead  me  out  of  this  gulf  of  sin  and 
death !  "  So  he  prayed  with  her,  and  reminded  her  that  God 
did  not  desire  the  death  of  a  sinner,  but  rather  that  he  should 
turn  from  his  wickedness  and  live  ;  and  she  was  comforted. 
And  the  next  morning  Abraham  rose  up  and  took  his  niece  by 
the  hand,  leaving  behind  them  her  gay  attire  and  jewels  and 
ill-gotten  wealth. 

And  they  returned  together  to  the  cell  in  the  wilderness. 

From  this  time  did  Mary  lead  a  life  of  penitence  and  of  great 
humility,  ministering  to  her  aged  uncle,  who  died  glorifying 
God :  after  his  death,  she  lived  on  many  years,  praising  God, 
and  doing  good  in  humbleness  and  singleness  of  heart,  and 
having  favor  with  the  people ;  so  that  from  all  the  country 
round  they  brought  the  sick,  and  those  who  were  possessed, 
and  she  healed  them,  —  such  virtue  was  in  her  prayers,  al- 
though she  had  been  a  sinner !  Nay,  it  is  written,  that  even 
the  touch  of  her  garment  restored  health  to  the  afflicted. 

At  length  she  died,  and  the  angels  carried  her  spirit  out  of 
the  shadow  and  the  cloud  of  sin  into  the  glory  and  the  joy 
of  heaven. 

Although  the  legend  of  Mary  the  Penitent  is  accepted  by 
the  Church,  which  celebrates  her  conversion  on  the  29th  of 
October,  effigies  of  her  must  be  rare  ;  I  have  never  met  with 
any  devotional  representation  of  her.  A  print  attributed  to 
Albert  Dlirer  represents  the  hermit  Abraham  bringing  back  his 
penitent  niece  to  his  cell.1 

In  the  Louvre  are  two  large  landscapes  by  Philippe  de 
Champaigne,  which  in  poetry  and  grandeur  of  conception  come 
near  to  those  of  Niccolo  Poussin ;  both  represent  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Mary  the  Penitent.  In  the  first,  amid  a  wild  and 
rocky  landscape,  is  the  cell  of  Abraham,  and  Mary,  sitting 
within  it,  is  visited  by  the  young  hermit  who  tempted  her  to 
sin  ;  in  the  second,  we  have  the  same  wilderness,  under  another 
aspect ;  Mary,  in  a  rude  secluded  hut,  embowered  in  trees,  is 
visited  by  pilgrims  and  votaries,  who  bring  to  her  on  their 
shoulders  and  on  litters,  the  sick  and  the  afflicted,  to  be  healed 
by  her  prayers.  The  daughter  of  Champaigne,  whom  he  ten- 
1  Leben  und  Werke  von  Albrecht  Diirer,  No.  2067- 


ST.   THAIS   AND   ST.   PELAGIA  387 

derly  loved,  was  a  nun  at  Port-Royal,  and  I  think  it  probable 
that  these  pictures  (like  others  of  his  works)  were  painted  for 
that  celebrated  convent. 

St.  Thais,  a  renowned  Greek  saint,  is  another  of  these 
"  bienheureuses  pecheresses"  not  the  same  who  sat  at  Alex- 
ander's feast,  and  fired*  Persepolis,  but  a  firebrand  in  her  own 
way.  St.  Pelagia,  called  Pelagia  Meretrix  and  Pelayia  Mima 
(for  she  was  also  an  actress),  is  another.  These  I  pass  over 
without  further  notice,  because  I  have  never  seen  nor  read  of 
any  representation  of  them  in  Western  Art. 

St.  Afra.  who  sealed  her  conversion  with  her  blood,  will  be 
found  among  the  Martyrs. 

Poets  have  sung,  and  moralists  and  sages  have  taught,  that 
for  the  frail  woman  there  was  nothing  left  but  to  die ;  or  if 
more  remained  for  'her  to  suffer,  there  was  at  least  nothing  left 
for  her  to  be  or  do :  no  choice  between  sackcloth  and  ashes 
and  the  livery  of  sin. 

The  beatified  penitents  of  the  early  Christian  Church  spoke 
another  lesson;  spoke  divinely  of  hope  for  the  fallen,  hope 
without  self-abasement  or  defiance.  We,  in  these  days,  ac- 
knowledge no  such  saints;  we  have  even  done  our  best  to 
dethrone  Mary  Magdalene  ;  but  we  have  martyrs,  —  "by  the 
pang  without  the  palm,"  —  and  one  at  least  among  these  who 
has  not  died  without  lifting  up  a  voice  of  eloquent  and  solemn 
warning;  who  has  borne  her  palm  on  earth,  and  whose  starry 
crown  may  be  seen  on  high  even  now,  amid  the  constellations 
of  Genius. 


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